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This article is about the sense.
For the social and aesthetic aspects of "taste", see .
For other uses, see .
Taste, gustatory perception, or gustation is the sensory impression of
or other substances on the tongue and is one of the .
Taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with
cells located on . Taste, along with smell () and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines
or other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other areas including the upper surface of the
The tongue is covered with thousands of small bumps called , which are easily visible to the naked eye. Within each papilla are hundreds of taste buds. The exception to this is the
that do not contain taste buds. There are between 2000 and 5000 taste buds that are located on the back and front of the tongue. Others are located on the roof, sides and back of the mouth, and in the throat. Each taste bud contains 50 to 100 taste receptor cells.
The sensation of taste can be categorized into five basic tastes: , , , , and . Taste buds are able to differentiate among different tastes through detecting interaction with different molecules or ions. Sweet, umami, and bitter tastes are triggered by the binding of molecules to
of taste buds. Saltiness and sourness are perceived when
enter taste buds, respectively.
The basic tastes contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth — other factors include , detected , detected through a variety of , muscle nerves, etc.; temperature, and "coolness" (such as of ) and "hotness" (), through .
As taste senses both harmful and beneficial things, all basic tastes are classified as either aversive or appetitive, depending upon the effect the things they sense have on our bodies. Sweetness helps to identify energy-rich foods, while bitterness serves as a warning sign of poisons.
Taste perception fades with age: On average, people lose half their taste receptors by the time they turn 20. Not all animals can sense all tastes.
postulated in
that the two most basic tastes were sweet and bitter. He was one of the first to develop a list of basic tastes.
, an ancient
healing science, has its own tradition of basic tastes, comprising , , , , bitter & .
Similarly, the Ancient Chinese regarded
as a basic taste.
for the basic tastes of bitter, sweet and umami have been identified. They are . The cells that detect sourness have been identified as a subpopulation that express the protein . The responses are mediated by an influx of protons into the cells but the receptor for sour is still unknown. The receptor for amiloride-sensitive attractive salty taste in mice has been shown to be a sodium channel. There is some evidence for a sixth taste that senses fatty substances.
In 2010, researchers found bitter
in lung tissue, which cause airways to relax when a bitter substance is encountered. They believe this mechanism is evolutionarily adaptive because it helps clear lung infections, but could also be exploited to treat
Taste is brought to the
by 3 different cranial nerves:[]
for the anterior 2/3 of the tongue and .
for the posterior 1/3 of the tongue as well as portions of the upper pharynx.
for the small area on the .
For a long period, it was commonly accepted[] that there is a finite and small number of "basic tastes" of which all seemingly complex tastes are ultimately composed. Just as with , the "basic" quality of those sensations derives chiefly from the nature of human perception, in this case the different sorts of tastes the human
can identify. As of the early twentieth century, physiologists and psychologists believed there were four basic tastes: sweetness, sourness, saltiness bitterness. At that time
was not proposed as a fifth taste but now a large number of authorities recognize it as the fifth taste.[] In
countries within the sphere of mainly
cultural influence,
(piquancy or hotness) had traditionally been considered a sixth basic taste.[]
Main article:
Sweetness, usually regarded as a pleasurable sensation, is produced by the presence of
and a few other substances. Sweetness is often connected to
and , which contain a . Sweetness is detected by a variety of
coupled to the
found on the . At least two different variants of the "sweetness receptors" must be activated for the brain to register sweetness. Compounds the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to two different sweetness receptors. These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for all sweet sensing in humans and animals. Taste detection thresholds for sweet substances are rated relative to , which has an index of 1. The average human detection threshold for sucrose is 10 millimoles per liter. For
it is 30 millimoles per liter, with a sweetness index of 0.3, and
0.002 millimoles per liter.
"Sour" redirects here. For other uses, see .
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Sourness is the taste that detects . The sourness of substances is rated relative to dilute , which has a sourness index of 1. By comparison,
has a sourness index of 0.7,
an index of 0.46, and
an index of 0.06.
Sour taste is detected by a small subset of cells that are distributed across all taste buds in the tongue. Sour taste cells can be identified by expression of the protein PKD2L1, although this gene is not required for sour responses. There is evidence that the protons that are abundant in sour substances can directly enter the sour taste cells. This transfer of positive charge into the cell can itself trigger an electrical response. It has also been proposed that weak acids such as acetic acid, which are not fully dissociated at physiological pH values, can penetrate taste cells and thereby elicit an electrical response. According to this mechanism, intracellular hydrogen ions inhibit potassium channels, which normally function to hyperpolarize the cell. By a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire action potentials and release neurotransmitter. The mechanism by which animals detect sour is still not completely understood.
The most common food group that contains naturally sour foods is , such as , , , , and sometimes .
also usually has a sour tinge to its flavor, and if not kept correctly,
can spoil and develop a sour taste. Children in the US show a greater enjoyment of sour flavors than adults, and
is popular in North America including , , ,
and sour versions of
and . Many of these candies contain citric acid.
Saltiness is a taste produced primarily by the presence of . Other ions of the
group also taste salty, but the further from sodium, the less salty the sensation is. The size of
ions most closely resemble those of sodium, and thus the saltiness is most similar. In contrast,
ions are far larger, so their salty taste differs accordingly.[] The saltiness of substances is rated relative to
(NaCl), which has an index of 1. Potassium, as
(KCl), is the principal ingredient in
and has a saltiness index of 0.6.
, e.g. , NH4+, and
cations of the
group of the , e.g. calcium, Ca2+, ions generally elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they, too, can pass directly through ion channels in the tongue, generating an .
Bitterness is the most sensitive of the tastes, and many perceive it as unpleasant, sharp, or disagreeable, but it is sometimes desirable and intentionally added via various . Common bitter foods and beverages include , unsweetened , South American , , , , many plants in the
greens, wild , and . The ethanol in
tastes bitter, as do the additional bitter ingredients found in some alcoholic beverages including
and orange in .
is also known for its bitter taste and is found in .
Main article:
Bitterness is of interest to those who study , as well as various health researchers since a large number of natural bitter compounds are known to be toxic. The ability to detect bitter-tasting, toxic compounds at low thresholds is considered to provide an important protective function. Plant leaves often contain toxic compounds, yet even amongst
primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fiber and poisons than mature leaves. Amongst humans, various
techniques are used worldwide to detoxify otherwise inedible foods and make them palatable. Furthermore, the use of fire, changes in diet, and avoidance of toxins has led to neutral evolution in human bitter sensitivity. This has allowed several loss of function mutations that has led to a reduced sensory capacity towards bitterness in humans when compared to other species.
The threshold for stimulation of bitter taste by quinine averages a concentration of 8 μ (8 micromolar). The taste thresholds of other bitter substances are rated relative to quinine, which is thus given a reference index of 1. For example,
has an index of 11, is thus perceived as intensely more bitter than quinine, and is detected at a much lower solution threshold. The most bitter substance known is the synthetic chemical , which has an index of 1,000. It is used as an
(a ) that is added to toxic substances to prevent accidental ingestion. This was discovered in 1958 during research on , a local anesthetic, by
of , , .[]
Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2, also known as T2Rs) such as
coupled to the
are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances. They are identified not only by their ability to taste for certain "bitter" , but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric). The TAS2R family in humans is thought to comprise about 25 different taste receptors, some of which can recognize a wide variety of bitter-tasting compounds. Over 550 bitter-tasting compounds have been identified, of which about 100 have been assigned to one or more specific receptors. Recently it is speculated that the selective constraints on the TAS2R family have been weakened due to the relatively high rate of mutation and pseudogenization. Researchers use two synthetic substances,
(PROP) to study the
of bitter perception. These two substances taste bitter to some people, but are virtually tasteless to others. Among the tasters, some are so-called "" to whom PTC and PROP are extremely bitter. The variation in sensitivity is determined by two common alleles at the TAS2R38 locus. This genetic variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics.
Main article:
Umami is an
taste and is described as a savory or
taste. It can be tasted in
and , and while also found in many other fermented and aged foods, this taste is also present in tomatoes, grains, and beans.
(MSG), developed as a food additive in 1908 by , produces a strong umami taste. See
pages for a further explanation of the amino-acid taste receptor. A
meaning "good flavor" or "good taste", umami (旨味) is considered fundamental to many
cuisines and was first described in 1908, although it was only recently recognized in
as a basic taste.
Some umami taste buds respond specifically to glutamate in the same way that "sweet" ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of .
Measuring the degree to which a substance presents one basic taste can be achieved in a subjective way by comparing its taste to a reference substance.
Sweetness is subjectively measured by comparing the threshold values, or level at which the presence of a dilute substance can be detected by a human taster, of different sweet substances. Substances are usually measured relative to , which is usually given an arbitrary index of 1 or 100.
is about 1.4 times
, a sugar found in honey and vegetables, is about three- and , a milk sugar, is one-half as sweet.
The sourness of a substance can be rated by comparing it to very dilute
Relative saltiness can be rated by comparison to a dilute salt solution.
, a bitter medicinal found in , can be used to subjectively rate the bitterness of a substance. Units of dilute quinine hydrochloride (1 g in 2000 mL of water) can be used to measure the threshold bitterness concentration, the level at which the presence of a dilute bitter substance can be detected by a human taster, of other compounds. More formal chemical analysis, while possible, is difficult.
Main article:
Sweetness is produced by the presence of , some proteins, and a few other substances.[] It is often connected to
and , which contain a .[]Sweetness is detected by a variety of
coupled to a
that acts as an intermediary in the communication between taste bud and brain, . These receptors are T1R2+3 (heterodimer) and T1R3 (homodimer), which account for sweet sensing in humans and other animals.
Sourness is , and, like salt, it is a taste sensed using . Hydrogen
detect the concentration of
that are formed from acids and water.[] In addition, the taste receptor PKD2L1 has been found to be involved in tasting sour.
Saltiness is a taste produced best by the presence of
(such as Na+, K+ or Li+) and, like sour, it is tasted using ion channels.
, e.g., , NH+
cations of the
group of the , e.g., calcium, Ca2+, ions, in general, elicit a bitter rather than a salty taste even though they, too, can pass directly through
in the tongue.[]
Bitterness
Research has shown that TAS2Rs (taste receptors, type 2, also known as T2Rs) such as
are responsible for the human ability to taste bitter substances. They are identified not only by their ability to taste certain bitter ligands, but also by the morphology of the receptor itself (surface bound, monomeric).
is responsible for umami, but some
( and ) can act as complements, enhancing the taste.
Glutamic acid binds to a variant of the G protein-coupled receptor, producing an
The tongue can also feel other sensations not generally included in the basic tastes. These are largely detected by the
Pungency (also spiciness or hotness)
Main articles:
Substances such as ethanol and
cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The sensation of heat is caused by the food's activating nerves that express
receptors. Two main plant-derived compounds that provide this sensation are
from . The
("hot" or "spicy") sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper, and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world—especially in equatorial and sub-tropical climates, such as , , , , , , , , ,
(including ), , and
This particular sensation, called , is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. Foods like chili peppers activate n the sensation interpreted as "hot" results from the stimulation of somatosensory (pain/temperature) fibers on the tongue. Many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors (such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails,
or a wound) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents.
countries within the sphere of, mainly, , , and
cultural influence, traditionally consider
a sixth basic taste.
Some substances activate cold
receptors even when not at low temperatures. This "fresh" or "minty" sensation can be tasted in , , ethanol, and . Caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold,
ion channels on , unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon.
Both Chinese and
cooking include the idea of 麻 (má or mati rasa), a tingling numbness caused by spices such as . The cuisines of
province in China and of the Indonesia province North Sumatra often combine this with
to produce a 麻辣 málà, "numbing-and-hot", or "mati rasa" flavor. These sensations although not taste fall into a category of .
Astringency
Some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain
that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. Examples include , , , and unripe
Less exact terms for the astringent sensation are "dry", "rough", "harsh" (especially for wine), "tart" (normally referring to sourness), "rubbery", "hard" or "styptic".
When referring to wine, dry is the opposite of sweet, and does not refer to astringency. Wines that contain tannins and so cause an astringent sensation are not necessarily classified as "dry," and "dry" wines are not necessarily astringent.
In the Indian Ayurvedic tradition, one of the six tastes is astringency (kasaaya).
Metallicness
A metallic taste may be caused by food and drink, certain medicines or
dental fillings. It is generally considered an off flavor when present in food and drink. A metallic taste may be caused by
reactions in the mouth. In the case where it is caused by dental work, the dissimilar metals used may produce a measurable current. Some artificial sweeteners are perceived to have a metallic taste, which is detected by the
receptors.
is considered by many people to have a metallic taste. A metallic taste in the mouth is also a symptom of various medical conditions, in which case it may be classified under the symptoms
or , referring to distortions of the sense of taste.
The distinctive taste of chalk has been identified as the calcium component of that substance. In 2008, geneticists discovered a
on the tongues of . The CaSR receptor is commonly found in the , , and . Along with the "sweet" T1R3 receptor, the CaSR receptor can detect calcium as a taste. Whether closely related genes in mice and humans means the phenomenon exists in humans as well is unknown.
Recent research reveals a potential
called the . CD36 was targeted as a possible lipid taste receptor because it binds to
molecules (more specifically, long-chain ), and it has been localized to
cells (specifically, the circumvallate and foliate ). There is a debate over whether we can truly taste fats, and supporters of our ability to taste free fatty acids (FFAs) have fashioned the argument around a few main points: there is an evolutionary advantage t a potential fat receptor has been locate fatty acids evoke specific responses that activate
neurons, similar to other curre and, there is a physiological response to the presence of oral fat. Although CD36 has been studied primarily in , research examining human subjects' ability to taste fats found that those with high levels of CD36
were more sensitive to tasting fat than were those with low levels of CD36 this study points to a clear association between CD36 receptor quantity and the ability to taste fat.
Other possible fat taste receptors have been identified.
have been linked to fat taste, because their absence resulted in reduced preference to two types of fatty acid ( and ), as well as decreased neuronal response to oral fatty acids.
Monovalent cation channel
has been implicated in fattiness taste as well, but it is thought to be involved primarily in downstream processing of the taste rather than primary reception, as it is with other tastes such as bitter, sweet, and umami.
Heartiness (kokumi)
Some Japanese researchers refer to the kokumi of foods. This sensation has also been described as mouthfulness,p. 290 and appears to be related to a number of -L- peptides, which activate a
which is also sensitive to .
Temperature
Temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. Food and drink that—in a given culture—is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. For example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served cold, but soups—again, with exceptions—are usually only eaten hot. A cultural example is . In North America it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. In South America soda is almost exclusively consumed lukewarm in winter.[]
Main article:
A supertaster is a person whose sense of taste is significantly more sensitive than average. The cause of this heightened response is likely, at least in part, due to an increased number of . Studies have shown that supertasters require less fat and sugar in their food to get the same satisfying effects. However, contrary to what one might think, these people actually tend to consume more salt than the average person. This is due to their heightened sense of the taste of bitterness, and the presence of salt drowns out the taste of bitterness. (This also explains why supertasters prefer salted cheddar cheese over non-salted.)
Main article:
Aftertastes arise after food has been swallowed. An aftertaste can differ from the food it follows.
and tablets may also have a lingering aftertaste, as can certain artificial flavor compounds, such as
(artificial sweetener).
Main article:
An acquired taste often refers to an appreciation for a food or beverage that is unlikely to be enjoyed by a person who has not had substantial exposure to it, usually because of some unfamiliar aspect of the food or beverage, including a strong or strange odor, taste, or appearance.
Patients with , pituitary insufficiency, or
sometimes have a hyper-sensitivity to the four primary tastes.
(complete loss of taste)
(reduced sense of taste)
(distortion in sense of taste)
(persistent abnormal taste)
(abnormally heightened sense of taste)
It has been known for some time that these categories may not be comprehensive. In Guyton's 1976 edition of Textbook of Medical Physiology, he wrote:
On the basis of physiologic studies, there are generally believed to be at least four primary sensations of taste: sour, salty, sweet, and bitter. Yet we know that a person can perceive literally hundreds of different tastes. These are all supposed to be combinations of the four primary sensations...However, there might be other less conspicuous classes or subclasses of primary sensations",
Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables, from sampling to analysis and interpretation. In fact there is a "plethora of methods" Indeed, the taste index of 1, assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness), hydrochloric acid (for sourness), quinine (for bitterness), and sodium chloride (for saltiness), is itself arbitrary for practical purposes.
Some values, such as those for maltose and glucose, vary little. Others, such as aspartame and sodium saccharin, have much larger variation. Regardless of variation, the perceived intensity of substances relative to each reference substance remains consistent for taste ranking purposes. The indices table for McLaughlin & Margolskee (1994) for example, is essentially the same as that of Svrivastava & Rastogi (2003), Guyton & Hall (2006), and Joesten et al. (2007). The rankings are all the same, with any differences, where they exist, being in the values assigned from the studies from which they derive.
As for the assignment of 1 or 100 to the index substances, this makes no difference to the rankings themselves, only to whether the values are displayed as whole numbers or decimal points. Glucose remains about three-quarters as sweet as sucrose whether displayed as 75 or 0.75.
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Svrivastava, R.C. & Rastogi, R.P (2003), , in ., , Studies in interface science, vol.18, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science,   2010  Taste indices of table 9, p.274 are select sample taken from table in Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology (present in all editions)
Reference #30 (Wooding et al.) is helpful, but it is incorrect. The discovery that variants in the TAS2R38 gene underlie the ability to taste PTC and PROP was reported a year earlier in: Kim, U.-K., Jorgenson, E., Coon, H., Leppert, M., Risch, N., and D. Drayna. Positional Cloning of the human quantitative trait locus underlying taste sensitivity to phenylthiocarbamide. Science 299: (2003). I was the senior and communicating author on both of these papers.
Dennis Drayna, PhD NIDCD/National Institutes of Health
at Kitchen Geekery. An informative article about the science behind taste. Written from a culinary science perspective.
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Hui, Y.H, ed. (2010), , Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,   2010  See especially comments and key references in regards taste
Thomas Hummel & Antje Welge-Lüssen, ed. (2006), , Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngolog, Vol.63, Basel, Switzerland: Karger,   2010
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Schiffman SS (June 1983). "Taste and smell in disease (second of two parts)". The New England Journal of Medicine 308 (22): 1337–43. :.  .
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Svrivastava, R.C. & Rastogi, R.P (2003), , in ., , Studies in interface science, vol.18, Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Science,   2010  Taste indices of table 9, p.274 are select sample taken from table in Guyton's Textbook of Medical Physiology (present in all editions)
Li X, Staszewski L, Xu H, Durick K, Zoller M, Adler E (April 2002). . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99 (7): 4692–6. :.  .  .
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at . An informative overview with good list of references.
at Kitchen Geekery. An informative article about the science behind taste. Written from a culinary science perspective.
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