当前位置： &
marginal cost price是什么意思
中文翻译边际成本价格, 边际成本定价法:&&&&adj. 1.边的，边缘的；记在栏外的，旁注的；限界的， ...:&&&&成本(价格)。
例句与用法1.Marginal cost pricing边际成本定价2.It argues that charging policy , based on marginal cost pricing , is economically efficient , and facts show that relevant principles are more widely accepted by airport operators利用边际成本定价模式确定飞机所需交纳的起降费从经济学角度来说是富于效率的，并且相关的原则也为越来越多的机场所采纳。 3.It also suggests that in the circumstance of china ' s fast growing air transportation industry , marginal cost pricing can he used in providing guidance to airport ' s reform of the slot allocation mechanism指出在中国航空运输业迅速发展的背景下，边际成本定价模式可以为改革现有机场起降时段分配机制提供一种指导思路。 4.This thesis introduces the definition and main contents of spinning reserve , renders the model of defining the spot price of spinning reserve according to the marginal cost pricing , and exploit the software system of pricing and bargaining , by which we analyze the grid of central china论文重点研究了旋转备用容量的定价理论，给出了以边际成本来确定旋转备用容量电价的模型方法，开发了旋转备用最优定价与交易的软件系统，并应用该软件对华中电网进行了实例计算分析。
相邻词汇热门词汇From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In , the marginal utility of a
is the gain from an increase, or loss from a decrease, in the
of that good or service. Economists sometimes speak of a law of diminishing marginal utility, meaning that the first
of consumption of a good or service yields more utility than the second and subsequent units, with a continuing reduction for greater amounts[]. The marginal decision rule states that a good or service should be consumed at a quantity at which the marginal utility is equal to the .
The term marginal refers to a small change, starting from some baseline level. As
explained the term,
"Marginal considerations are considerations which concern a slight increase or diminution of the stock of anything which we possess or are considering"
Frequently the marginal change is assumed to start from the , meaning the total resources available for consumption (see ). This endowment is determined by many things including physical laws (which constrain how forms of energy and matter may be transformed), accidents of nature (which determine the presence of natural resources), and the outcomes of past decisions made by the individual himself or herself and by others.
For reasons of tractability, it is often assumed in
that goods and services are . Under this assumption, , including marginal utility, may be expressed in terms of . Marginal utility can then be defined as the first derivative of the total satisfaction obtained from consumption of a good or service, with respect to the amount of consumption of that good or service.
In practice the smallest relevant division may be quite large. Sometimes economic analysis concerns the marginal values associated with a change of one unit of a discrete good or service, such as a motor vehicle or a haircut. For a motor vehicle, the total number of motor vehicles produced is large enough for a continuous assumption to be reasonable: this may not be true for, say, an aircraft carrier.
Main article:
Depending on which theory of utility is used, the interpretation of marginal utility can be meaningful or not. Economists have commonly described utility as if it were quantifiable, that is, as if different levels of utility could be compared along a numerical scale. This has affected the development and reception of theories of marginal utility. Quantitative concepts of utility allow familiar arithmetic operations, and further assumptions of continuity and differentiability greatly increase tractability.
Contemporary mainstream economic theory frequently defers metaphysical questions, and merely notes or assumes that preference structures conforming to certain rules can be usefully proxied by associating goods, services, or their uses with quantities, and defines "utility" as such a quantification.
Another conception is , which equated usefulness with the production of pleasure and avoidance of pain, assumed subject to arithmetic operation. British economists, under the influence of this philosophy (especially by way of ), viewed utility as "the feelings of pleasure and pain" and further as a "quantity of feeling" (emphasis added).
Though generally pursued outside of the mainstream methods, there are conceptions of utility that do not rely on quantification. For example, the
generally attributes value to the satisfaction of needs, and sometimes rejects even the possibility of quantification. It has been argued that the Austrian framework makes it possible to consider rational preferences that would otherwise be excluded.
In any standard framework, the same object may have different marginal utilities for different people, reflecting different preferences or individual circumstances.
This section has multiple issues. Please help
or discuss these issues on the .
of this section is . Relevant discussion may be found on the . Please do not remove this message until the . (April 2014)
This section does not
any . Please help improve this section by . Unsourced material may be challenged and . (July 2012)
The concept that marginal utilities diminish across the ranges relevant to decision-making is called the "law of diminishing marginal utility" (and is also known as 's ). This refers to the increase in utility an individual gains from increase in the consumption of a particular good. "The law of diminishing marginal utility is at the heart of the explanation of numerous economic phenomena, including
and the ... The law says, first, that the marginal utility of each homogenous unit decreases as the supply of units increases (and vice versa); second, that the marginal utility of a larger-sized unit is greater than the marginal utility of a smaller-sized unit (and vice versa). The first law denotes the law of diminishing marginal utility, the second law denotes the law of increasing total utility."
The law of diminishing marginal utility is similar to the law of
which states that as the amount of one
increases as all other factors of production are held the same, the marginal return (extra output gained by adding an extra unit) decreases.
As the rate of commodity acquisition increases, marginal utility decreases. If commodity consumption continues to rise, marginal utility at some point may fall to zero, reaching maximum total utility. Further increase in consumption of units of commodities causes marginal utility to become negative; this signifies dissatisfaction. For example,
beyond some point, further doses of antibiotics would kill no pathogens at all, and might even become harmful to the body.
to satiate thirst a person drinks water but beyond a point consumption of more water might make the person vomit,hence leading to diminishing marginal utility
it takes a certain amount of food energy to sustain a population, yet beyond a point, more calories cannot be consumed and are simply discarded (or cause disease).
Diminishing marginal utility is traditionally a microeconomic concept and often holds for an individual. For an individual, the marginal utility of a good or service might actually be increasing. For example:
bed sheets, which up to some number may only provide warmth, but after that point may be useful to allow one to effect an escape by being tied
tickets, for travel or theatre, where a second ticket might allow one to take a date on an otherwise
dosages of antibiotics, where having too few pills would leave bacteria with greater resistance, but a full supply could effect a cure.
the third leg is more useful than the first two when building a chair.
As suggested elsewhere in this article, occasionally one may come across a situation in which marginal utility increases even at a macroeconomic level. For example the provision of a service may only be viable if it accessible to most or all of the population, and the marginal utility of a raw material required to provide such a service will increase at the "tipping point" at which this occurs. This is similar to the position with very large items such as aircraft carriers: the numbers of these items involved are so small that marginal utility is no longer a helpful concept, as there is merely a simple "yes" or "no" decision.
While the above example of water rations conforms to ordinary notions of , the concept and logic of marginal utility are independent of the presumption that people pursue self-interest. For example, one can conceive of an individual who gave highest priority to the rose bush, next highest to the dog, and last to himself. In that case, if the individual has three rations of water, then the marginal utility of any one of those rations is that of watering the person. With just two rations, the person is left unwatered and the marginal utility of either ration is that of watering the dog. Likewise, a person could give highest priority to the needs of one of her neighbors, next to another, and so forth, placing
the concept of diminishing marginal utility would still apply.
explains choice with the hypothesis that people decide whether to effect any given change based on the marginal utility of that change, with rival alternatives being chosen based upon which has the greatest marginal utility.
If an individual possesses a good or service whose marginal utility to him is less than that of some other good or service for which he could trade it, then it is in his interest to effect that trade. Of course, as one thing is sold and another is bought, the respective marginal gains or losses from further trades will change. If the marginal utility of one thing is diminishing, and the other is not increasing, all else being equal, an individual will demand an increasing ratio of that which is acquired to that which is sacrificed. (One important way in which all else might not be equal is when the use of the one good or service complements that of the other. In such cases, exchange ratios might be constant.) If any trader can better his position by offering a trade more favorable to complementary traders, then he will do so.
In an economy with , the marginal utility of a quantity is simply that of the best good or service that it could purchase. In this way it is useful for explaining , as well as essential aspects of models of .
Adam Smith
Main article:
The "paradox of water and diamonds", usually most commonly associated with , though recognized by earlier thinkers, is the apparent contradiction that water possesses a value far lower than diamonds, even though water is far more vital to a human being.
Price is determined by both marginal utility and marginal cost, and here the key to the "paradox" is that the marginal cost of water is far lower than that of diamonds.
That is not to say that the price of any good or service is simply a function of the marginal utility that it has for any one individual nor for some ostensibly typical individual. Rather, individuals are willing to trade based upon the respective marginal utilities of the goods that they have or desire (with these marginal utilities being distinct for each potential trader), and prices thus develop constrained by these marginal utilities.
in which usefulness can be quantified, the change in utility of moving from state
Moreover, if
are distinguishable by values of just one variable
which is itself quantified, then it becomes possible to speak of the ratio of the marginal utility of the change in
to the size of that change:
Diminishing marginal utility, given quantification
(where “” indicates that the only
to change is ).
Mainstream neoclassical economics will typically assume that the limit
exists, and use “marginal utility” to refer to the
Accordingly, diminishing marginal utility corresponds to the condition
The concept of marginal utility grew out of attempts by economists to explain the determination of price. The term “marginal utility”, credited to the
by , was a translation of Wieser's term “Grenznutzen” (border-use).
Perhaps the essence of a notion of diminishing marginal utility can be found in 's , wherein he writes
external goods have a limit, like any other instrument, and all things useful are of such a nature that where there is too much of them they must either do harm, or at any rate be of no use
(There has been marked disagreement about the development and role of marginal considerations in Aristotle's value theory.)
A great variety of economists have concluded that there is some sort of interrelationship between utility and rarity that affects economic decisions, and in turn informs the determination of prices. Diamonds are priced higher than water because their marginal utility is higher than water .
Eighteenth-century Italian , such as , , , , and , held that value was explained in terms of the general utility and of scarcity, though they did not typically work-out a theory of how these interacted. In Della moneta (1751), Abbé , a pupil of Genovesi, attempted to explain value as a ratio of two ratios, utility and scarcity, with the latter component ratio being the ratio of quantity to use.
Richard Whately
, in Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution de richesse (1769), held that value derived from the general utility of the class to which a good belonged, from comparison of present and future wants, and from anticipated difficulties in procurement.
Like the Italian mercantists, , saw value as determined by utility associated with the class to which the good belong, and by estimated scarcity. In De commerce et le gouvernement (1776), Condillac emphasized that value is not based upon cost but that costs were paid because of value.
This last point was famously restated by the Nineteenth Century proto-marginalist, , who in Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1832) wrote
It is not that pearls fetch a high price because men but on the contrary, men dive for them because they fetch a high price.
(Whatley's student
is noted below as an early marginalist.)
Gabriel Cramer
The first unambiguous published statement of any sort of theory of marginal utility was by , in “Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis”. This paper appeared in 1738, but a draft had been written in 1731 or in 1732. In 1728,
had produced fundamentally the same theory in a private letter. Each had sought to resolve the , and had concluded that the marginal desirability of money decreased as it was accumulated, more specifically such that the desirability of a sum were the
(Bernoulli) or
(Cramer) thereof. However, the more general implications of this hypothesis were not explicated, and the work fell into obscurity.
In , delivered in 1833 and included in Lectures on Population, Value, Poor Laws and Rent (1837),
explicitly offered a general marginal utility theory, but did not offer its derivation nor elaborate its implications. The importance of his statement seems to have been lost on everyone (including Lloyd) until the early 20th century, by which time others had independently developed and popularized the same insight.
In An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836),
asserted that marginal utilities were the ultimate determinant of demand, yet apparently did not pursue implications, though some interpret his work as indeed doing just that.
In “De la mesure de l’utilité des travaux publics” (1844),
applied a conception of marginal utility to the problem of determining bridge tolls.
published Die Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fliessenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln, which presented a marginal utility theory and to a very large extent worked-out its implications for the behavior of a market economy. However, Gossen's work was not well received in the Germany of his time, most copies were destroyed unsold, and he was virtually forgotten until rediscovered after the so-called Marginal Revolution.
Marginalism eventually found a foothold by way of the work of three economists,
in England,
in Austria, and
in Switzerland.
William Stanley Jevons
first proposed the theory in
(), a paper presented in 1862 and published in 1863, followed by a series of works culminating in his book The Theory of Political Economy in 1871 that established his reputation as a leading political economist and logician of the time. Jevons' conception of utility was in the
tradition of
and of , but he differed from his
predecessors in emphasizing that "value depends entirely upon utility", in particular, on "final utility upon which the theory of Economics will be found to turn." He later qualified this in deriving the result that in a model of exchange equilibrium, price ratios would be proportional not only to ratios of "final degrees of utility," but also to costs of production.
presented the theory in
(translated as ) in 1871. Menger's presentation is peculiarly notable on two points. First, he took special pains to explain why individuals should be expected to rank possible uses and then to use marginal utility to decide amongst trade-offs. (For this reason, Menger and his followers are sometimes called “the Psychological School”, though they are more frequently known as “the ” or as “the Vienna School”.) Second, while his illustrative examples present utility as quantified, his essential assumptions do not. (Menger in fact crossed-out the numerical tables in his own copy of the published Grunds?tze.) Menger also developed the . Menger's work found a significant and appreciative audience.
introduced the theory in ?léments d'économie politique pure, the first part of which was published in 1874 in a relatively mathematical exposition. Walras's work found relatively few readers at the time but was recognized and incorporated two decades later in the work of
An American, , is sometimes also mentioned. But, while Clark independently arrived at a marginal utility theory, he did little to advance it until it was clear that the followers of Jevons, Menger, and Walras were revolutionizing economics. Nonetheless, his contributions thereafter were profound.
Vilfredo Pareto
Although the Marginal Revolution flowed from the work of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, their work might have failed to enter the mainstream were it not for a second generation of economists. In England, the second generation were exemplified by , by , in A in S and in America by
There were significant, distinguishing features amongst the approaches of Jevons, Menger, and Walras, but the second generation did not maintain distinctions along national or linguistic lines. The work of von Wieser was heavily influenced by that of Walras. Wicksteed was heavily influenced by Menger. Fetter referred to himself and Davenport as part of “the American Psychological School”, named in imitation of the Austrian “Psychological School”. (And Clark's work from this period onward similarly shows heavy influence by Menger.) William Smart began as a conveyor of Austrian School theory to English-language readers, though he fell increasingly under the influence of Marshall.
B?hm-Bawerk was perhaps the most able expositor of Menger's conception. He was further noted for producing a theory of interest and of profit in equilibrium based upon the interaction of diminishing marginal utility with diminishing
of time and with . (This theory was adopted in full and then further developed by
and, with modifications including formal disregard for time-preference, by Wicksell's American rival .)
Marshall was the second-generation marginalist whose work on marginal utility came most to inform the mainstream of neoclassical economics, especially by way of his Principles of Economics, the first volume of which was published in 1890. Marshall constructed the demand curve with the aid of assumptions that utility was quantified, and that the marginal utility of money was constant (or nearly so). Like Jevons, Marshall did not see an explanation for supply in the theory of marginal utility, so he synthesized an explanation of demand thus explained with supply explained in a more
manner, determined by costs which were taken to be objectively determined. (Marshall later actively mischaracterized the criticism that these costs were themselves ultimately determined by marginal utilities.)
acknowledged that "nothing can have value, without being an object of utility", but, in his analysis, "use-value as such lies outside the sphere of investigation of political economy", with labor being the principal measure of value under capitalism.
The doctrines of marginalism and the Marginal Revolution are often interpreted as somehow a response to . However the first volume of
was not published until July 1867, after the works of Jevons, Menger, and Walras were writt and Marx was still a relatively "marginal" figure when these works were completed. It is unlikely that any of them knew anything of him. (On the other hand,
has suggested that Marx, voraciously reading at the , may have come across the works of one or more of these figures, and that his inability to formulate a viable critique may account for his failure to complete any further volumes of Kapital before his death.)
Nonetheless, it is not unreasonable to suggest that the generation who followed the preceptors of the Revolution succeeded partly because they could formulate straightforward responses to Marxist economic theory. The most famous of these was that of B?hm-Bawerk, Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems (1896), but the first was Wicksteed's "The Marxian Theory of Value. Das Kapital: a criticism" (1884, followed by "The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder" in 1885). Initially there were only a few Marxist responses to marginalism, of which the most famous were 's B?hm-Bawerks Marx-Kritik (1904) and Politicheskoy ekonomni rante (1914) by . However, over the course of the 20th century a considerable literature developed on the conflict between marginalism and the labour theory of value, with the work of the neo-Ricardian economist
providing an important critique of marginalism.
It might also be noted that some followers of
similarly consider marginalism and neoclassical economics a reaction to , which was published in 1879.
In the 1980s
have worked to rebuild Marxian theses on a marginalist foundation.
In his 1881 work ,
presented the , deriving its properties from marginalist theory which assumed utility to be a differentiable function of quantified goods and services. Later work attempted to generalize to the indifference curve formulations of utility and marginal utility in avoiding unobservable measures of utility.
derived a theory of consumer choice solely from properties of indifference curves. Because of , the , and his own subsequent loss of interest, Slutsky's work drew almost no notice, but similar work in 1934 by
derived much the same results and found a significant audience. (Allen subsequently drew attention to Slutsky's earlier accomplishment.)
Although some of the third generation of Austrian School economists had by 1911 rejected the quantification of utility while continuing to think in terms of marginal utility, most economists presumed that utility must be a sort of quantity. Indifference curve analysis seemed to represent a way to dispense with presumptions of quantification, albeit that a seemingly arbitrary assumption (admitted by Hicks to be a "rabbit out of a hat") about decreasing marginal rates of substitution would then have to be introduced to have convexity of indifference curves.
For those who accepted that indifference curve analysis superseded earlier marginal utility analysis, the latter became at best perhaps pedagogically useful, but "old fashioned" and observationally unnecessary.
When Cramer and Bernoulli introduced the notion of diminishing marginal utility, it had been to address , rather than the . The marginalists of the revolution, however, had been formally concerned with problems in which there was neither
nor . So too with the indifference curve analysis of Slutsky, Hicks, and Allen.
of Bernoulli and others was revived by various 20th century thinkers, with early contributions by
(1944), and
(1954). Although this hypothesis remains controversial, it brings not only utility, but a quantified conception of utility (cardinal utility), back into the mainstream of economic thought.
A major reason why quantified models of utility are influential today is that risk and uncertainty have been recognized as central topics in contemporary economic theory. Quantified utility models simplify the analysis of risky decisions because, under quantified utility, diminishing marginal utility implies . In fact, many contemporary analyses of saving and portfolio choice require stronger assumptions than diminishing marginal utility, such as the assumption of , which means
marginal utility.
Meanwhile, the Austrian School continued to develop its ordinalist notions of marginal utility analysis, formally demonstrating that from them proceed the decreasing marginal rates of substitution of indifference curves.
Rittenberg and Trigarthen. Principles of Microeconomics: Chapter 6. pp. 3
Accessed June 20, 2012
; The Development of Utility Theory, I and II, Journal of Political Economy (1950), issues 3 and 4.
; The Adoption of Marginal Utility Theory, History of Political Economy (1972).
; A Course in Microeconomic Theory, Chapter two: The theory of consumer choice and demand, Utility representations.
; Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Chapter I §I-III.
Bentham, J Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Chapter IV.
Jevons, William S “Brief Account of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy”, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society v29 (June 1866) §2.
Jevons, William S Brief Account of a General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society v29 (June 1866) §4.
Menger, C Grunds?tze der Volkswirtschaftslehre (Principles of Economics) Chapter 2 §2.
Mc Culloch, James H
Zeitschrift für National?konomie 37 (1977) #3&4 (September).
; Utility, International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1968).
; Theorie des Geldes und der Umlaufsmittel (1912).
Davenport, Herbert J The Economics of Enterprise (1913) Ch VII, pp 86-7.
Polleit, Thorsten () ,
Wicksteed, Philip H
Economic Journal v24 (1914) #94.
Smith, A An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Chapter IV. "Of the Origin and Use of Money"
Gordon, Scott (1991). "The Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth century". History and Philosophy of Social Science: An Introduction. .  .
Marshall, A Principles of Economics, .
von Wieser, F ?ber den Ursprung und die Hauptgesetze des wirtschaftlichen Wertes [The Nature and Essence of Theoretical Economics] (1884), p. 128.
Wieser, F Der natürliche Werth [Natural Value] (1889), Bk I Ch V “Marginal Utility” ().
, Politics, Bk 7 Chapter 1.
Soudek, Josef (1952). "Aristotle's Theory of Exchange: An Inquiry into the Origin of Economic Analysis". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1): 45–75.  .
Kauder, Emil (1953). "Genesis of the Marginal Utility Theory from Aristotle to the End of the Eighteenth Century".
63 (251): 638–50.  .
Gordon, Barry Lewis John (1964). "Aristotle and the Development of Value Theory".
78 (1): 115–128.  .
Schumpeter, Joseph A History of Economic Analysis (1954) Part II Chapter 1 §3.
Meikle, S Aristoteles' Economic Thought (1995) Chapters 1, 2, & 6.
; A History of Economic Reasoning (1983).
Pribram, K A History of Economic Reasoning (1983), Chapter 5 “Refined Mercantilism”, “Italian Mercantilists”.
Whately, R Introductory Lectures on Political Economy, Being part of a course delivered in the Easter term (1832).
Bernoulli, D “Specimen theoriae novae de mensura sortis” in Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae 5 (1738); reprinted in translation as “Exposition of a new theory on the measurement of risk” in Econometrica 22 (1954).
Bernoulli, D letter of 4 July 1731 to Nicolas Bernoulli ().
Bernoulli, N letter of 5 April 1732, acknowledging receipt of “Specimen theoriae novae metiendi sortem pecuniariam” ().
Cramer, G letter of 21 May 1728 to
(1903). "On Some Neglected British Economists".
13 (51): 335–363.  .
White, Michael V. (1992). "Diamonds Are Forever(?): Nassau Senior and Utility Theory".
60 (1): 64–78. :.
Dupuit, Jules (1844). "De la mesure de l’utilité des travaux publics". Annales des ponts et chaussées. Second series 8.
W. Stanley Jevons (1871), The Theory of Political Economy, p. 111.
W. Stanley Jevons (1879, 2nd ed.), , pp. 208.
R.D. Collison Brown (1987), "Jevons, William Stanley," , v. 2, pp. 1008-09.
Kauder, E A History of Marginal Utility Theory (1965), p76.
Donald A. Walker (1987), "Walras, Léon" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, p. 862.
Salerno, Joseph T. 1999; “The Place of Mises’s Human Action in the Development of Modern Economic Thought.” Quarterly Journal of Economic Thought v. 2 (1).
B?hm-Bawerk, Eugen Ritter von. “Grundzüge der Theorie des wirtschaftlichen Güterwerthes”, Jahrbüche für National?konomie und Statistik v 13 (1886). Translated as Basic Principles of Economic Value.
B?hm-Bawerk, Eugen R Kapital Und Kapitalizns. Zweite Abteilung: Positive Theorie des Kapitales (1889). Translated as Capital and Interest. II: Positive Theory of Capital with appendices rendered as Further Essays on Capital and Interest.
Wicksell, Johan Gustaf K ?ber Wert, Kapital unde Rente (1893). Translated as
Fisher, I Theory of Interest (1930).
Schumpeter, Joseph A History of Economic Analysis (1954) Pt IV Ch 6 §4.
Marx, Karl H Capital V1 Ch 1 §1.
Marx, Karl H
(completed in 1857 though not published until much later)
: A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy] (1859), p276
Hayek, Friedrich August von, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism (1988) p150.
B?hm-Bawerk, Eugen Ritter von: "Zum Abschluss des Marxschen Systems" ["On the Closure of the Marxist System"], Staatswiss. Arbeiten. Festgabe für
Wicksteed, Philip H "Das Kapital: A Criticism", To-day 2 (1884) p. 388-409.
Wicksteed, Philip H "The Jevonian criticism of Marx: a rejoinder", To-day 3 (1885) p. 177-9.
Hilferding, Rudolf: B?hm-Bawerks Marx-Kritik (1904). Translated as B?hm-Bawerk's Criticism of Marx.
; Политической экономии рантье (1914). Translated as .
, and Fred Harrison: The Corruption of Economics (1994).
; "Sulla teoria del bilancio del consumatore", Giornale degli Economisti 51 (1915).
Hicks, John Richard, and Roy George Douglas A "A Reconsideration of the Theory of Value", Economica 54 (1934).
Hicks, Sir John R Value and Capital, Chapter I. 2"Utility and Preference" §8, p23 in the 2nd edition.
Hicks, Sir John R Value and Capital, Chapter I. "Utility and Preference" §7-8.
Samuelson, Paul A "Complementarity: An Essay on the 40th Anniversary of the Hicks-Allen Revolution in Demand Theory", Journal of Economic Literature vol 12 (1974).
Ramsey, Frank P "Truth and Probability" (), Chapter VII in The Foundations of Mathematics and other Logical Essays (1931).
von Neumann, John and Oskar M
Savage, Leonard Jimmie: Foundations of Statistics (1954).
Diamond, Peter, and Michael Rothschild, eds.: Uncertainty in Economics (1989). Academic Press.
Demange, Gabriel, and Guy Laroque: Finance and the Economics of Uncertainty (2006), Ch. 3, pp. 71-72. Blackwell Publishing.
Kimball, Miles (1990), "Precautionary Saving in the Small and in the Large", , 58 (1) pp. 53-73.
Downey, E. H. (1910). "The Futility of Marginal Utility".
18 (4): 253–268.  .
: Hidden categories: