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macromolecule
药学名词 ... 磁性药物制剂 magnetic medicinal preparations 大分子 macromolecule 单克隆抗体 monoclonal antibody ...
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聚酰胺-胺型树状大分子（PAMAM）是一类纳米级的聚合物分子，具有高度支化的球形结构，分子内含有大量的伯胺和叔胺基团，能与DNA自组装形成带正电荷的紧凑复合物，...
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giant molecule
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giant gas field 特大气田
giant molecule 大分子
giant oilfield 特大油田 ...
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macromolecular
斯陶丁格（Staudinger）把相对分子质量大于104的物质称之为大分子（Macromolecular）.这种物质的分子比较小，单个分子的大小就能达到胶体颗粒大小的范围，可表现出胶体的一些性质。
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Macromolecules reaction
Ribonucleic acid for yeast
rigid macromolecule
PAMAM-derived
macromolecular trafficking
macromolecular science
macromoleculariness
macromolecular organization
[分子生物]
biomacromolecule
[分子生物]
Biological macromolecule
biomolecule
Biopolymer
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macromolecule
- 引用次数：94
The result revealed that self-assembly could be induced by the interaction between micromolecule and surface active group of macromolecule.
证实了无机小分子与同种大分子的表面活性基团相互作用可以诱导高分子物质的自组装。
参考来源 -
macromolecular
- 引用次数：69
参考来源 -
large molecule
- 引用次数：8
参考来源 -
giant molecule
- 引用次数：1
参考来源 - 嗜酸乳杆菌细菌素高产菌株的诱变选育及其发酵工艺的初步研究
macro-molecule
macromolecule
- 引用次数：43
Polysaccharides are compounds with macromolecule, so the purity should not be judged by the purity rubri of micromolecule compounds.
多糖为大分子化合物,它的纯度标准不能用通常小分子化合物的纯度标准来衡量。
参考来源 -
macromolecular
- 引用次数：39
Focused on preparation and properties of macromolecular nanoparticles, systemic works were carried out in the dissertation.
论文围绕大分子纳米粒的制备工艺和性能研究开展了系统的研究工作。
参考来源 -
high-molecular
- 引用次数：1
参考来源 -
macromolecule
macro molecule
macromolecule
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{化} macromolecule
大分子超导体 macromole
大分子化合物 mac
大分子霉素
大分子取向 macrom
大分子性 macromoleculariness
以上来源于：《新汉英大辞典》
这是大分子化学。
This is macromolecular chemistry.
但是对于原始大分子却是在沸点附近容易复制。
But for primitive macromolecules to easily split apart for replication requires temperatures near boiling!
此项工作的详情可以参见本周出版的美国化学学会大分子杂志的相关报导。
Details of the work are in a paper published this week in the American Chemical Society journal Macromolecules.
It's very water soluble and it's a big molecule, it can't naturally get inside cells on its own.
它是一个水溶性极强的大分子,非常非常大的分子,质粒在自然状态下并不能自己进入细胞
So we're going to finish talking about molecular orbital theory, we'll switch over to discussing bonding in larger molecules, even larger than diatomic, so we'll move on to talking about valence bond theory and hybridization.
我们要结束关于分子轨道理论的讨论，转向讨论大分子的成键，比二原子分子更大的分子，我们会继续讨论价电子成键理论,和杂化。
Because of that you can't count on molecules moving rapidly over the size of a cell that's ten to 30 Microns in diameter.
因此不要对生物大分子能在,直径十到三十微米的,细胞里高速穿行抱有任何指望
大分子相对分子质量在5000以上，甚至超过百万的生物学物质，如蛋白质、核酸、多糖等。它与生命活动关系极为密切，由被认为单体的简单分子单位所组成。在溶液中有形成凝胶的物质。一般把相对分子质量超过一万的化合物称为大分子化合物或高分子化合物。它是由许多重复的结构单元组成，一般具有线状结构，有的具有枝状结构。许多具有重要生物作用的物质，如蛋白质和核酸等均属于这类化合物。大分子蛋白质的基本组成单位或构件分子（building-block molecule）是氨基酸（amino acid，AA）。
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专业英语课文翻译
School of chemical engineering and pharmaceutical test tubes 试管 test tube holder 试管夹 test tube brush 试管刷 test tube rack 试管架 beaker 烧杯 stirring 搅拌棒 thermometer 温度计 boiling flask 长颈烧瓶 Florence flask 平底烧瓶 flask,round bottom,two-neck boiling flask,three-neck conical flask 锥形瓶 wide-mouth bottle 广口瓶 graduated cylinder 量筒 gas measuring tube 气体检测管 volumetric flask 容量瓶 transfer pipette 移液管 Geiser burette(stopcock)酸式滴定管 funnel 漏斗 Mohr burette(with pinchcock)碱式滴定管 watch glass 表 面 皿 evaporating dish 蒸 发 皿 ground joint 磨口连接 Petri dish 有盖培养皿 desiccators 干燥皿 long-stem funnel 长颈漏斗 filter funnel 过滤漏斗 Büchner funnel 瓷漏斗 separatory funnel 分液漏斗 Hirsh funnel 赫尔什漏斗 filter flask 吸滤瓶 Thiele melting point tube 蒂勒熔点管 plastic squeeze bottle 塑料洗瓶 medicine dropper 药用滴管 rubber pipette bulb 吸球 microspatula 微型压舌板 pipet 吸量管 mortar and pestle 研体及研钵 filter paper 滤纸 Bunsen burner 煤气灯 burette stand 滴定管架 support ring 支撑环 ring stand 环架 distilling head 蒸馏头 side-arm distillation flask 侧臂蒸馏烧瓶 air condenser 空气冷凝器 centrifuge tube 离心管 fractionating column 精(分)馏管 Graham condenser 蛇形冷凝器 crucible 坩埚 crucible tongs 坩埚钳 beaker tong 烧杯钳 economyextension clamp 经济扩 展夹 extension clamp 牵引夹 utility clamp 铁试管夹 hose clamp 软管夹 burpinch clamp 弹簧夹 screw clamp 螺丝钳 ring clamp 环形夹 goggles 护目镜 stopcock 活塞 wire gauze 铁丝网 analytical balance 分析天平 分析化学 absolute error 绝对误差 accuracy 准确度 assay 化验 analyte(被)分析物 calibration 校准 constituent 成分 coefficient of variation 变 异 系 数 confidence level 置信水平 detection limit 检出限 determination 测定 estimation 估算 equivalent point 等当点 gross error 总误差 impurity 杂质 indicator 指示剂 interference 干扰 internal standard 内标 level of significance 显著性水平 limit of quantitation 定量限 masking 掩蔽 matrix 基体 precision 精确度 primary standard 原始标准物 purity 纯度qualitative analysis 定性分析 quantitative analysis 定量分析 random error 偶然误差 reagent 试剂 relative error 相对误差 robustness 耐用性 sample 样品 relative standard deviation 相对标准偏差 selectivity 选择性 sensitivity 灵敏度 specificity 专属性 titration 滴定 significant figure 有效数字 solubility product 溶度积 standard addition 标准加入法 standard deviation 标准偏差 standardization 标定法 stoichiometric point 化学计量点 systematic error 系统误差 有机化学 acid anhydride 酸酐 acyl halide 酰卤 alcohol 醇 aldehyde 醛 aliphatic 脂肪族的 alkene 烯烃 alkyne 炔 allyl 烯丙基 amide 氨基化合物 amino acid 氨基酸 aromatic compound 芳 香 烃 化 合 物 amine 胺 butyl 丁基 aromatic ring 芳环,苯环 branched-chain 支链 chain 链 carbonyl 羰基 carboxyl 羧基 chelate 螯合 chiral center 手性中心 conformers 构象 copolymer 共聚 物 derivative 衍 生 物 dextrorotatary 右 旋 性 的 diazotization 重氮化作用 dichloromethane 二氯甲烷 ester 酯 ethyl 乙基 fatty acid 脂肪酸 functional group 官 能 团 general formula 通 式 glycerol 甘油， 丙三醇 heptyl 庚基 heterocyclie 杂环的 hexyl 己基 homolog 同系物 hydrocarbon 烃,碳氢化合物 hydrophilic 亲水的hydrophobic 疏水的 hydroxide 烃基 ketone 酮 levorotatory 左旋性的 methyl 甲基 molecular formula 分子式 monomer 单 体 octyl 辛基 open chain 开链 optical activity 旋光性 （度） organic 有机的 organic chemistry 有机化学 organic compounds 有 机 化 合 物 pentyl 戊 基 phenol 苯酚 phenyl 苯基 polymer 聚合物，聚合体 propyl 丙基 ring-shaped 环状结构 zwitterion 兼性离子 saturated compound 饱和化合物 side chain 侧链 straight chain 直链 tautomer 互变 （异构） 体 structural formula 结构式 triglyceride 甘油三酸脂 unsaturated compound 不饱和化合物 物理化学 activation energy 活化能 adiabat 绝热线 amplitude 振幅 collision theory 碰撞理论 empirical temperature 假定温度 enthalpy 焓 enthalpy of combustion 燃烧焓 enthalpy of fusion 熔化热 enthalpy of hydration 水合热 enthalpy of reaction 反应热 enthalpy of sublimation 升 华 热 enthalpy of vaporization 汽化热 entropy 熵 first law 热力学第一定律 first order reaction 一级反应1free energy 自由能 Hess’s law 盖斯定律 Gibbs free energy offormation 吉布斯生成能 heat capacity 热容 internal energy 内能 isobar 等压线 isochore 等容线 isotherm 等温线 kinetic energy 动能 latent heat 潜 能 Planck’s constant 普 朗 克 常 数 potential energy 势能 quantum 量子 quantum mechanics 量 子 力 学 rate law 速率定律 specific heat 比热propyl gallate 没食子酸丙酯 sodium chloride 氯化钠 sodium nitraten 硝酸钠 sodium nitrite 亚硝酸钠 trans fats 反式脂肪 genetic food 转基因食品 food poisoning 食物中毒 hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) 危害分析关键控制点技术 maternal and child health care 妇幼保健护理 national patriotic health campaign committee(NPHCC) 全国爱国卫生运动委员会 rural health 农村卫生管理 the state food and drug administration (SFDA) 国家食品药品监督管理局 光谱：Astronomical Spectroscopy 天文光谱学 Laser Spectroscopy 激光光谱 学 Mass Spectrometry 质谱 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 原子吸收光谱 Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy 衰减全反射光谱 Electron Paramagnetic Spectroscopy 电子顺磁谱 Electron Spectroscopy 电子光谱spontaneous 自发的 standard enthalpy change 标准焓变standard entropy of reaction 标准反应熵 standard molar entropy 标准摩尔熵standard pressure 标压state function 状态函数 thermal energy 热能 thermochemical equation 热化学方程式 thermodynamic equilibrium 热力学平衡 uncertainty principle 测不准定理zero order reaction 零级反应 zero point energy 零点能 课文词汇 实验安全及记录： eye wash 眼药水 first-aid kit 急救箱 gas line 输气管 safety shower 紧急冲淋房 water faucet 水龙头 flow chart 流程图 loose leaf 活页 单元操作分类： heat transfer 传热 Liquid-liquid extraction 液液萃取 liquid-solid leaching 过滤 vapor pressure 蒸气压 membrane separation 薄膜分离 空气污染： carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 carbon monoxide 一氧化碳 particulate matter 颗粒物质photochemical smog 光化烟雾 primary pollutants 一次污染 物secondary pollutants 二次 污染物 stratospheric ozone depletion 平流层臭氧消耗 sulfur dioxide 二氧化硫 volcanic eruption 火山爆发 食品化学： amino acid 氨基酸,胺 amino group 氨基 empirical formula 实验式,经验式 fatty acid 脂肪酸 peptide bonds 肽键 polyphenol oxidase 多酚氧化酶 salivary amylase 唾液淀粉酶 steroid hormone 甾类激素 table sugar 蔗糖 triacylglycerol 三酰甘油,甘油三酯 食品添加剂： acesulfame-K 乙酰磺胺酸钾,一种甜味剂 adrenal gland 肾上腺 ionizing radiation 致电离辐射 food additives 食品添加剂 monosodium glutamate 味精,谷氨酸一钠 （味精的化学成 分） natural flavors 天然食用香料,天然食用调料 nutrasweet 天冬甜素 potassium bromide 溴化钾Infrared Spectroscopy 红外光谱Fourier Transform Spectrosopy 傅里叶变换光谱 Gamma-ray Spectroscopy 伽玛射线光谱 Multiplex or Frequency-Modulated Spectroscopy 复用或频率调制光谱 X-ray SpectroscopyX 射线光谱 色谱：Gas Chromatography 气相色谱 High Performance Liquid Chromatography 高效液相色谱 Thin-Layer Chromatography 薄层色谱 magnesium silicate gel 硅酸镁凝胶 retention time 保留时间 mobile phase 流动相 stationary phase 固定相 反应类型： agitated tank 搅拌槽 catalytic reactor 催化反应器 batch stirred tank reactor 间歇搅拌反应釜 continuous stirred tank 连续搅拌釜 exothermic reactions 放热反应 pilot plant 试验工厂 fluidized bed Reactor 流动床反应釜 multiphase chemical reactions 多相化学反应 packed bed reactor 填充床反应器 redox reaction 氧化还原反应 reductant-oxidant 氧化还原剂 acid base reaction 酸碱反应 additionreaction 加成反 应 chemical equation 化学方程式 valence electron 价电子 combination reaction 化合反应 hybrid orbital 杂化轨道 decomposition reaction 分解反应 substitution reaction 取代(置换)反应2将所有的乙醇从混合物中蒸发出来。 这一点能够通过温度计 Lesson5 Classification of Unit Operations 单元操作 中温度的急剧上升而识别出从乙醇的沸点到水的沸点。 Fluid flow 流体流动 它涉及的原理是确定任一流体从一个点到另一个点 (3)Industrial uses of F…工业分馏---炼油厂 最重要的工业应用分馏是原油的分馏。除了规模以外，这 的流动和输送。 个过程的原则类似于以上的实验室方法，连续供料和操作。 Heat transfer 传热 这个单元操作涉及的原理是控制不同位置处热量和 而事实上，原油由许多不同的化合物混合在一起。分馏塔 的柱子上有一出口能够允许不同温度段的不同馏分有规 能量的积累和转移。 律的溢流出来，具有高度挥发性的气体将会从最顶端的阀 Evaporation 蒸发 它涉及易挥发溶剂的蒸发，这些溶剂来自不易挥发的 门逸出，而挥发性较小的筑路焦油则从底部出来。 Lesson7 Crystallization 结晶化 溶质，诸如盐或溶液中任意其他物质。 Drying 干燥 结晶是一种化学家利用它净化固体化合物的技 这个操作是将易挥发的液体（通常为水）从固体物质 术。 这是一种每个化学家在实验室必须熟练掌握的基 中移除。 本程序。结晶是以溶解度原则为基础:化合物(溶质) Distillation 蒸馏 更倾向于溶于热的液体(溶剂)而非冷的液体。如果允 蒸馏是基于不同液体的蒸汽压不同，通过加热煮沸将 许饱和热溶液冷却， 溶质不再溶于溶剂和形成纯化合 一个液体混合物分离。 物晶体。 杂质从生长的晶体中被排除和纯固态晶体可 Absorption 吸收 通过过滤从溶解的杂质中被分离。 吸收是将一种化合物从气体流中转移到液体中。 (1)加热溶剂至沸腾，把固体放入一个锥形瓶重结晶。 Membrane separation 薄膜分离 这个过程包含从液体或气体的溶质通过一个暂时性 (2)向含有固体的锥形瓶中倒入少量的热溶剂。 (3)强烈振荡锥形瓶使固体溶解。 的薄膜扩散到另一液体中。 (4)将锥形瓶放在蒸气浴上，以保持溶液高温。 Liquid-liquid extraction 液液萃取 在这个操作中，溶液中的溶质被转移到与之接触的，与溶 (5)如果仍有不溶解固体，可以加入少量溶剂和强烈振荡。 (6)当所有固体都溶解了，把锥形瓶放在工作台上。 液相对不溶的里一种液体溶剂中。 不要动它！ Liquid-solid leaching 过滤 过滤用于处理液体中的细微待分离固体，并可得到包 (7)过一会儿后，晶体出现在锥形瓶中。 含在固体中的溶质移出。 (8)你现在可以把锥形瓶放入冰浴中来完成结晶过程。 Crystallization 结晶 Lesson 11 Heat Transfer 传热 该操作可实现溶质的回收，例如溶液中的盐可通过液 1 Basics of Heat Transfer 基本传热 体中的溶质沉淀获得。 In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer Mechanical physical separation 机械物理分离 is concerned with only two things: temperature, and 机械物理分离是应用机械手段来实现固体、液体或气体的 分离。例如过滤、沉淀和缩小体积，机械分离常被归入分 the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow 离的单元操作。 represents the movement of thermal energy from Lesson6 Fractional Distillation 分馏 分馏是根据混合物里面化合物的沸点， 将其加热到足 place to place. 在最简单的术语， 传热学科关注的只有两件事： 温度， 够高的温度从而达到分离。 和热流量。 温度是热能源的数量， 而热流代表的热能 (1)Apparatus 实验装置： 从一个地方移动到的地方。 圆底烧瓶 锥形瓶 On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the 李比希冷凝器 kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's 抗爆沸原板颗粒 temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its 温度计 constituent molecules (manifested both in linear 橡胶塞(除非快速适应使用) motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions (2)Method 试验方法： containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this 例如，乙醇和水的混合物蒸馏。酒精在 78.5℃时沸腾，而 energy to regions with less kinetic energy. 水的沸点是 100℃。因此，通过轻轻加热混合物，酒精会 热能是分子的动能相关。 更大的物质的 首先沸腾。一些混合物形成共沸物，在较低的温度下的那 在微观尺度， 温度， 其组成分子的热运动更大的 （表现在直线运动 个混合物会比另一成分的化合物先沸腾。在乙醇的例子中， 和振动。 含有大分子的动能来传递能量到较小 由 95%乙醇和 5%的水组成的混合物煮沸到 78.2℃。 所以不 模式） 的动能的地区是自然的。 Several material properties 能完全将乙醇蒸馏提纯。 该实验装置如图所示。将混合物装入圆底烧瓶并放入一些 serve to modulate the heat transferred between two 防爆沸小粒， 并且将分馏管安装在顶部。 当混合物沸腾时， regions at differing temperatures. Examples include 蒸汽上升到分馏管。 蒸汽在冷凝管中凝结， 向下流动回流冷 thermal conductivities, specific heats, material 却蒸馏物聚成液体。 只有大部分挥发性的蒸汽处于气体状态 densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface 一直到达顶部。 在分馏管顶部的蒸汽几乎是纯乙醇。 然后传 emissivities, and more. Taken together, these 递到冷凝管， 使它冷却下来， 直到它液化。 这个过程持续到 properties serve to make the solution of many heat3transfer problems an involved process. 几种材料的性 能起到调节转移之间的两个区域在不同温度下的热。 例子包括的热传导率，比热，密度，流体速度，流体 粘度，表面的发射率，和更多。总之，这些特性使许 多传热问题，一个复杂的过程，解决方案。 2. Heat Transfer Mechanisms 传热机制 Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories: 传热机制可以分为 3 大类： Conduction: Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons. 传导： 更大的分子动能的地区将通过他们的热能通过 分子的直接碰撞不分子的能量区域， 这个过程被称为 传导。在金属的热能源，运输的一个重要部分，也是 由导带电子进行。 Convection: When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection. 对流：当热传递到一个静态流体导致局部体积膨胀。 作为一个结果，诱导的压力梯度，重力，浮力和流体 包裹成为扩大移除，从而输送热流体运动（即对流） 除了传导。 这样的热诱导的流体运动的最初的静态液 体被称为自由对流。 Radiation: For cases where the fluid is already in motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be transported away chiefly by fluid convection. These cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure gradient to drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a gravity gradient to induce motion through buoyancy. 辐射： 对于流体已经在运动， 进行了流体热将被运走， 主要是由流体对流。这些情况下，被称为强制对流， 需要的压力梯度驱动的流体的运动， 而不是一个重力 梯度诱导运动通过浮力.Lesson 14 Air Pollution 大气污染Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment. Air pollution causes deaths and respiratory disease. Air pollution is often identified with major stationary sources, but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis. 空气污染颗粒物的人引入化学，大气，或生物材料，造成伤害或不适的人类或其他生物，或破坏自然环境。空气污 染造成的死亡和呼吸系统疾病。 空气污染往往是确定的主 要固定污染源，但排放的最大来源是移动的来源，主要是 汽车。二氧化碳之类的气体，是导致全球变暖，最近的气 候科学家的污染物得到了认可，而他们也承认，二氧化碳 是通过光合作用的植物生命所必需的。 The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems. 大气是一个复杂的，动态的天然气系统，来支持地球上的 生命本质。平流层臭氧耗竭因空气污染一直是威胁人类健 康和地球的生态系统。 Pollutants 污染物 An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made. 一种空气污染物被称为空气中的物质， 可以对人体和 环境造成的危害。污染物可在固体颗粒，形成液滴， 或气体。此外，他们可能是天然的或人造的。 Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories. 污染物可以被归类为主要或次要。通常，一个过程的主要 污染物是从直接排放的物质，如火山喷发的火山灰，一氧 化碳气体来自汽车废气、二氧化硫释放从工厂。 Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog. 二次污染物不能直接排放。相反，它们形成在空气中主要 污染物反应或相互作用。一种二次污染的一个重要的例子 是地面臭氧是光化学烟雾，使许多二次污染 Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants. 请注意，有些污染物可能是原发性和继发性：即，他们都 是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形成。 Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: 主要由人类活动产生的主要污染物包括： Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. 硫氧化物 （SOx）尤其是二氧化硫和二氧化硫的化学化合物公式。二4氧化硫是由火山和各种工业过程产生的。从煤和石油中常 含有硫化合物， 其燃烧产生的二氧化硫。 SO2 的进一步氧化， 通常在催化剂的存在下，如 NO2，形成硫酸，从而酸雨。 这是[ 2 ]在使用这些燃料作为动力来源的环境影响问题的 原因之一。 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants. 氮氧化物 （NOx） 特别是二氧化氮是高温燃烧排放。 可以被 看作是棕色的圆顶或羽顺风的城市。二氧化氮 NO2 与公式 的化合物。 这是一个几个氮氧化物。 这红棕色的有毒气体， 有一个特点鲜明，咬的气味。二是其中最为突出的空气污 染物。 Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide. 一氧化碳是无色，无味，无刺激性的但非常有毒气体。它 是由燃料如天然气不完全燃烧的产物，煤和木材。汽车尾 气是一氧化碳的主要来源。 Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion. 二氧化碳（CO2） ，一种温室气体排放燃烧。 Volatile organic compounds VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane ((CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. 挥发性有机化合物是一种重要的室外空气污染物。 在这场 他们往往分为不同的类别（甲烷（ CH4 ）和非甲烷 （NMVOCs） 。 甲烷是一种非常有效的温室气体， 有助于增 强全球变暖。其他烃类 VOCs 是重要的温室气体，通过产 生臭氧和延长了甲烷在大气中的寿命的作用， 虽然效果取 决于当地的空气质量。 在 NMVOCs 芳香族化合物， 苯， 甲 苯和二甲苯是可疑致癌物质， 可以通过延长曝光导致白血 病。丁二烯是另一个危险的化合物，通常是用工业用途有 关的。 Particulate matter Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate mattercan be man made or natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols―those made by human activities―currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer. 颗粒物质的微粒，或者称为颗粒物(PM)或细颗粒，是固 体或液体悬浮在空气中的微小颗粒。相反，气溶胶是指 颗粒与气体一起。大气颗粒物源可以是人造或天然。有 些颗粒物是自然发生的，从火山，沙尘暴，森林和草原 火灾，有生命的植物，和浪花。人类活动，如燃烧化石 燃料的车辆，电厂和各种工业过程中也产生了大量的气 溶胶。全球平均的，人为气溶胶由人类活动使目前约占 大气中的气溶胶总金额的百分之 10。空气中的微粒的水 平升高与健康的危害， 如心脏病， 肺功能的改变与肺癌。 oxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. 有毒金属，如铅，镉和铜。 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. 氯氟烃 （CFCs） ，从目前禁止使用的产品排放破坏臭氧层。 NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. 氨（NH3）从农业过程中排放。氨是一种具有氨化合物公 式。它通常是作为一种气体具有刺鼻的气味遇到。氨对陆 地生物的营养需求明显作为食品和肥料的前兆。氨，直接 或间接的影响， 也对许多药物的合成砌块。 尽管广泛使用， 是碱和有害的氨。 Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes 气味，如垃圾，污水，工业过程 Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon. 放射性污染物的核爆炸产生的爆炸，战争，和自然过程， 如氡的放射性衰变。 Secondary pollutants include: 二次污染物包括：Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog .Smog is a k the word Dsmog‖ is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form5secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. 颗粒物质从气态污染物和光化学烟雾形成的化合物。 烟雾 是一种空气污染；D烟雾‖是一个合成烟与雾。结果经典 的烟雾从大量的煤炭燃烧面积混合引起的烟尘和二氧化 硫。 现代的烟雾不经常来自于煤， 但从汽车和工业排放物， 作用在大气中经阳光照射产生的二次污染物， 也与主要排 放物结合形成光化学烟雾。 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. 地面臭氧（O3）的 NOx 和 VOCs 形成。臭氧（O3）是对流 层的关键组成部分 （也是俗称的平流层臭氧层的某些地区 一个重要的组成部分） 。光化学和化学反应驱动多发生在 白天和夜间的大气化学过程。 在由人类活动带来的异常高 浓度（主要是化石燃料的燃烧） ，它是一种污染物，和烟 雾的一个组成部分。 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs. 过氧硝酸（PAN）的 NOx 和 VOCs 同样构成。 Minor air pollutants include: 轻微的空气污染物包括： A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive. 大量小的有害空气污染物。 这些规定在美国清洁空气法案 下，欧洲的空气框架指令。 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. 各种持久性有机污染物，它可以附着在颗粒物。 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. 持久性有机污染物（POPs）是耐环境退化是通过化学，生 物有机化合物，和光解过程。正因为如此，他们已观察到 持续存在于环境中，能远距离运输，生物蓄积在人体和动 物的组织，在食物链的生物放大作用，并具有潜在的显着 的对人类健康和环境的影响Lesson 21 Medical ChemistryChemistry has long been an integral part of the pharmaceutical industry and its importance should not diminish. Many currently marketed drugs such as the antineoplastic agent, paclitaxel, and the antibiotic, vancomycin, are natural products. The extracts of plants and marine organisms and the products of soilbacteria fermentation will continue to be investigated as potential sources of powerful new drug substances. Chemists are certainly involved in this arena of drug discovery as they conduct the painstaking isolation, purification, and structural characterization of pharmacologically active components which most often are present in minute amounts in the natural source and which have extremely complex chemical structures. The enormous advances in molecular biology have resulted in the successful development of bio-engineered therapeutic agents, for example, human insulin, Herceptin (Genentech drug for breast cancer), and Enbrel (Immunex drug for rheumatoid arthritis). It is anticipated that many other biomolecules may be forthcoming for the treatment of human disease. 化学一直是制药行业的一个组成部分， 其重要性不应 该减少。许多已上市的药物如抗肿瘤药物，紫杉醇， 和抗生素，万古霉素，是天然产品。植物和海洋生物 和土壤细菌的发酵产品提取将继续研究的强大的新 的药物的潜在来源。 化学家确实参与了这一领域的药 物发现他们进行艰苦的分离，纯化和药理活性成分， 其中最常见的是存在于微量的天然来源， 具有极其复 杂的化学结构表征。 在分子生物学的巨大进步已导致 在生物工程药物的研制成功，例如，人胰岛素，赫赛 汀（Genentech 的药物对乳腺癌） ，和 Enbrel（内克 斯风湿性关节炎药物） 。据预计，许多其他生物分子 可能是即将到来的人类疾病的治疗。 However the great majority of existing drugs are small organic molecules (MW-200-600) that have been synthesized by medicinal chemists. There is no reason to doubt that most drugs of the future will also fall in this category. It is thus important to define what is meant by Dmedicinal chemist‖ and what role is played by the practitioners of this sub-discipline in the pharmaceutical industry. A traditional and perhaps somewhat narrow definition of medicinal chemist is that of a researcher engaged in the design and synthesis of bioactive molecules. As part of their academic training， many medicinal chemists carried out doctoral and postdoctoral work that involved the total synthesis of natural products andor the development of synthetic methodology. They are hired by pharmaceutical companies because of the skills they have gained in planning and conducting the synthesis of organic compounds. While such skills can remain important throughout chemists’ careers, they alone are insufficient for the challenging task of drug discovery in which, unlike the academic environment, synthetic chemistry is just a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Thus, the enterprising young chemical researcher who enters the industry must be able and willing to undergo an evolution from that of pure synthetic chemist who knows how to make compounds to that of medicinal chemist who also has an insight into what to make and why. 然而，现有的药物，绝大多数是有机小分子 （mw-200-600）已被药物化学家合成了。没有理由 怀疑大多数药物的未来也属于这一类。 因此， 定义什 么是D药用化学家‖和什么角色是由这一分支学科 的从业者在制药工业中起着重要的。 传统甚至有些狭 隘的药物化学家是一个研究员， 从事与生物活性分子6的设计合成。 作为他们的学术训练的一部分， 许多药 物化学家进行博士和博士后工作涉及天然产物的全 合成及合成方法的发展。 他们受雇于制药公司因为他 们在策划和进行合成有机化合物获得的技能。 虽然这 样的技能可以在药店的事业仍然是重要的， 他们还不 足以在药物发现的具有挑战性的任务， 不同的学术环 境， 合成化学只是达到目的的一种手段， 而不是目的 本身。 因此， 有进取心的年轻化学研究员进入行业必 须能够和愿意接受一个从纯的合成化学家谁知道如 何使化合物的药物化学家谁也洞察到做和为什么。 Such insight is gained by acquiring an expanded knowledge base. It is important for the medicinal chemist to know what structural components act as pharmacophores in existing drugs. Pharmacophores, which can be of varying complexity, comprise the essential structural elements of a drug molecule that enable it to interact on the molecular level with a biological macromolecule such as a receptor or enzyme and thus impart a pharmacological effect. The medicinal chemist must become skilled at analyzing the structure activity relationships (SAR) that pertain to the series of compounds on which he is working. That is, how does the activity in a biological test of analogs within the series change depending on the introduction of substituents of various size, polarity, and lipophilicity at various domains of the parent drug molecule? Elucidation of the SAR within a series of active compounds is the key to optimizing the potency and other desirable biological properties in order to identify a new chemical entity (NCE) as a bona fide drug candidate. Quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR) are often emp analyses employing linear free energy relationships, linear regression, and other techniques can be utilized to correlate biological activity with the electronic, steric, polarizability, and other physicallchemical parameters of the substituent groups on members of a series of structurally related compounds. 这种见解是通过收购扩大知识库了。 要知道结构构件 作为现有药物的药效的药物化学家很重要。 药效基团， 可以不同的复杂性， 包含一种药物分子， 使其在与生 物大分子如受体或酶分子水平的相互作用， 从而产生 药理效应的结构要素。 药用化学家必须成为熟练的分 析结构-活性关系（SAR） 属于该系列化合物对他工作 的。 那就是， 如何在生物试验活动的类似物在一系列 的变化取决于各种大小， 取代基的引入极性， 和亲脂 性的母体药物分子在不同领域？在一系列的活性化 合物的 SAR 鉴定是优化以及其他优良的生物学特性 的效力来确定一个新的化学实体的关键（NCE）作为 一个善意的候选药物。定量结构活性关系（ QSAR） 经常被用在这方面的努力； 分析采用线性自由能关系， 线性回归， 和其他技术可用于生物活性与电子， 空间， 极化和关联， 对一系列的结构上相关的化合物的取代 基参数等 physicallchemical 成员。 The synthesis and isolation of pure enantiomers has become increasingly important. In the past chiral drugs were most often marketed as racemic mixtures since it was not deemed cost-effective to provide them in enantiomercially pure form. However, in many cases one or the other enantiomers of an optically active drug may have a significantly greater level of the desired biological activity and/or less side effect liability than its antipode. Regulatory agencies such as the FDA now routinely require that each enantiomer of a chiral drug be isolated and evaluated in tests of efficacy, side effects, and toxicity. If one of the enantiomers is shown to be clearlysuperior then it is likely that it is the form that will be developed as the drug candidate. Thus enantioselective chemical reactions which can afford a high enantiomeric excess(ee) of one or the other of a pair of enantiomers are valuable components of the medicinal chemist’s synthetic tools. Enzyme chemistry plays a prominent role in drug R&D since isolated enzymes or microorganisms can often achieve an enantiospecific chemical transformation much more efficiently and economically than conventional synthetic methods. Many D big pharma ‖ companies now have dedicated groups that exclusively study enzymatic reactions. 与纯对映异构体的分离已成为越来越重要的合成。 在过去 的手性药物是最经常被作为外消旋混合物， 因为它被认为 是不符合成本效益 enantiomercially 纯粹的形式提供给他 们。然而，在许多情况下，一个或一个光学活性的药物可 能比其他的对映体的对映体的一个显着更大的所需的生 物活性和/或副作用少负债水平。管理机构如美国食品和 药物管理局现在经常要求每个对映异构体的手性药物分 离和测试评价疗效，副作用，毒性。如果其中的一个对映 体被证明是明显优于那么很可能它是形式， 将发展作为候 选药物。因此，对映选择性化学反应可负担得起的高对映 体过量（ee）的一个或一对对映体的其他的药物化学家的 合成工具价值的成分。 酶化学在药物研发从分离的酶或微 生物往往可以实现手性化学转化更有效和经济上比传统 的合成方法发挥了突出的作用。 许多D大制药公司现在有 专门小组，专门研究酶促反应。 Lesson 23 Food Nutrition Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure. 食物是什么物质，通常由主要是碳水化合物，脂肪，水分 和/或蛋白质，能吃或一个动物或人体对营养和乐趣醉。 here are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates , fats , fiber , minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. These nutrient classes can be generally grouped into the categories of macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins. 有七大类：营养，碳水化合物，脂肪，纤维，矿物质，蛋 白质，维生素，和水。这些营养类一般可分为宏量营养素 的种类（金额比较大的需要） ，以及微量元素（需要在较 小的数量） 。宏量营养素是碳水化合物，脂肪，纤维，蛋 白质和水。微量营养素是维生素与矿物质。 The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy, which is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called D Calories‖ and written with a capital C to distinguish from gram calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons. 大量营养素（不含纤维和水）提供能量，这是焦耳或热量 测量（通常称为D卡路里‖和大写 C 区分克卡路里） 。碳 水化合物和蛋白质为 17 kJ （4 大卡） 的每克脂肪提供能量， 而 37 kJ（9 大卡）每克。维生素，矿物质，纤维，和水不 提供能量，但所需的其他原因。 Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates may be simple7monomers (glucose, fructose, galactose), or large polymers polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of various fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol. Some fatty acids are essential, but not all. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to the elements of carbohydrates and fats. The nitrogen-containing monomers of protein, called amino acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a burden on the kidneys. Similar to fatty acids, certain amino acids are essential. 碳水化合物和脂肪分子由碳，氢，氧的原子。碳水化合物 可以是简单的单体（葡萄糖，果糖，半乳糖） ，或大的高 分子多糖（淀粉） 。脂肪甘油三酯，由各种脂肪酸甘油单 体的约束。一些脂肪酸是必不可少的，但并非所有的。蛋 白质分子中含有除脂肪与碳水化合物的元素氮原子。 含氮 单体蛋白， 称为氨基酸， 完成其他比能量代谢的许多角色， 当它们被用作燃料，摆脱了氮的地方对肾脏的负担。类似 的脂肪酸，某些氨基酸是必不可少的。 Other micronutrients not categorized above include antioxidants and phytochemicals. 其他微量元素分以上不包括抗氧化剂和植物化学物质。 Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency. 大多数食品中含有的一种混合的部分或全部的营养类。 有 些营养在定期的基础上，当别人需要较少。健康状况不佳 可能造成的不平衡的营养，无论过剩或不足。 Lesson 24 What Is Food Chemistry? What is food chemistry? Food Science deals with the production, processing, distribution, preparation, evaluation, and utilization of food. Food chemists work with plants that have been harvested for food, and animals that have been slaughtered for food. Food chemists are concerned with how these food products are processed, prepared, and distributed. For example, to address consumer demands, some food chemists are involved with finding fat and sugar substitutes that do not alter food taste and texture. 食品化学是什么？食品科学与生产，加工，配送，制备， 评价， 和利用的食物。 食品化学家用已收获的植物性食物， 并已用于屠宰的动物。 食品化学家关注的是如何将这些食 品加工，制备，和分布。例如，解决消费者的要求，一些 食品化学家参与发现脂肪和糖的替代品， 不改变食物的味 道和质地。 Basic food chemistry deals with the three primary components in food: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. 基本食品化学与食品中的三个主要组成部分： 碳水化合物， 脂类和蛋白质。 Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in plant and animal cells. They have an empirical formula CnH2nOn or (CH2O)n. Since this formula is essentially a combination of carbon and water these materials are called Dhydrates of carbon or carbohydrates‖. Carbohydrates are the primary product of plant photosynthesis, and are consumed as fuel by plants and animals. Food carbohydrates include the simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex carbohydrates (starches and fiber). 碳水化合物构成的一组化合物在植物和动物细胞中发现。他们有一个经验公式 cnh2non 或（CH2O） ，因为这个公式 基本上是一个组合的碳和水这些材料被称为D水合物的 碳或碳水化合物‖。 碳水化合物是植物光合作用的主要产 品，并消耗的植物和动物油。的碳水化合物，包括简单的 碳水化合物（糖类）和碳水化合物（淀粉和纤维） 。 Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and cholesterol. In the body, fat serves as a source of energy, a thermal insulator, and a c and it is an important component of the cell. Since fats have 2.25 times the energy content of carbohydrates and proteins, most people try to limit their intake of dietary fat to avoid becoming overweight. In most instances, fats are from animal products C meats, milk products, eggs, and seafood and oils are from plants C nuts, olives, and seeds. We use lipids for flavor, to cook foods, and to improve the texture of foods. 脂类包括脂肪，油，蜡，和胆固醇。在体内，脂肪作为能 量的来源，热绝缘体，和垫在器官周围；它是细胞的重要 组成部分。 由于脂肪有 2.25 倍的碳水化合物和蛋白质的能 量含量，大多数人试图限制他们的饮食中脂肪的摄入量， 以避免超重。 在大多数情况下， 脂肪是从动物产品C肉类， 奶制品，鸡蛋，海鲜和油是从植物C橄榄，坚果，种子。 我们使用的油脂味，煮的食物，以提高食品的质地。 Proteins are important components of food. Every cell requires protein for structure and function. Proteins are complex polymers composed of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids found in the body. Eight of these are essential for adults and children, and nine are essential for infants. Essential means that we cannot synthesize them in large enough quantities for growth and repair of our bodies, and therefore, they must be included in our diet. Proteins consist of long chains of 100-500 amino acids that form into three-dimensional structures, their native state. When you change the native state of the protein, you change the three-dimensional structure, which is referred to as denaturation. Factors that cause denaturation include heating, acid, beating and freezing. 蛋白质的食物的重要成分。 每一个细胞的结构和功能的蛋 白质的需要。蛋白质是由氨基酸复合聚合物。有 20 种氨 基酸在体内发现。八这些是必不可少的成人和儿童，九是 必不可少的婴儿。 我们不能合成足够大的数量给我们身体 的生长和修复，因此必要的手段，他们必须被包含在我们 的饮食。蛋白质组成的长链，100-500 氨基酸形成的三维 结构，其原生状态。当你改变蛋白质的天然状态，改变你 的三维结构， 这是被称为变性。 引起变性的因素包括加热， 酸，殴打和冻结。 Lesson 25 How Do Food Additives Affect Your Health? The possibility of harmful or toxic substances becoming part of the food supply concerns the public, the food industry, and regulatory agencies. Toxic chemicals may be introduced into foods unintentionally through direct contamination, through environmental pollution, and as a result of processing. Many naturally occurring food compounds may be toxic. A summary of the various toxic chemicals in foods was presented in a scientific status summary of the Institute of Food Technologists (1975). Many toxic substances present below certain levels pose no hazard to health. Some substances are toxic and at the same time essential for good health (such as vitamin A and selenium). An understanding of the properties of additives and contaminants and how these materials are regulated by governmental agencies is important to the food scientist.8有害或有毒物质成为食品供应部分上市的可能性， 食品工 业，以及监管机构。有毒的化学物质可以被引入到食品无 意通过直接污染，环境污染，作为一个结果，处理。许多 自然产生的化合物可能是有毒的食物。 食品中的各种有毒 化学物质的总结是一个科学的食品技术学院的现状的总 结（1975） 。目前许多低于一定水平的健康没有危害的有 毒物质。有些物质是有毒的，同时保持身体健康（如维生 素、硒） 。的添加剂和污染物的性质的理解，这些材料是 由政府机构的监管是重要的食品科学家。 Food additives can be divided into two major groups, intentional additives and incidental additives. Intentional additives are chemical substances that are added to food for specific purposes. Although we have little control over unintentional or incidental additives, intentional additives are regulated by strict governmental controls. The U.S. law governing additives in foods is the Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1958. According to this act, a food additive is defined as follows: 食品添加剂可分为两大类，故意的添加剂和杂费添加剂。 故意的添加剂的化学物质，添加到食品中有特定用途的。 虽然我们有意外或偶然添加剂点控制， 故意的添加剂有严 格的政府管制的规定。 美国法在食品添加剂是食品添加剂 修正执政的联邦食品， 药品和化妆品法案 1958。 根据这一 法案，食品添加剂的定义如下： The term food additive means any substance the intended use of which results, or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, and including any source of radiation intended for any such use), if such a substance is not generally recognized, among experts qualified by scientific training and experience to evaluate its safety, as having been adequately shown through scientific procedures (or, in the case of a substance used in food prior to January 1,1958, through either scientific procedures or experience based on common use in food) to be safe under the condition except that such a term does not include pesticides, color additives and substances for which prior sanction or approval was granted. 长期的食品添加剂是指任何物质的使用目的，结果，或可 合理预期的结果， 直接或间接地在其成为一个组件或影响 任何食物的特性（包括任何物质用于生产，制造，包装， 加工，生产，包装，运输，处理，或持有食品；和包括任 何的辐射源，用于任何用途） ，如果这样的物质不是公认 的专家，在合格的科学训练和经验来评估其安全性，已通 过科学的程序，充分显示出（或者，在一个在食品中的应 用到一月 11958，现有的物质情况下通过科学的程序或基 于在食物中使用的共同经验）对其使用条件下是安全的； 但这一期限不包括农药， 而之前的制裁或批准的颜色添加 剂和物质。Lesson 26 Food SafetyFood safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Debates on genetic food safety include such issues as impact of geneticallymodified food on health of further generations and genetic pollution of environment, which can destroy natural biological diversity. In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item. 食品安全是一个科学的描述处理， 制备， 和的方式，防止食源性疾病的存储。这包括一些例程，应 遵循以避免潜在的严重危害健康的危险。 食物传播疾病的 人以及作为生长培养基中的细菌，可引起食物中毒。基因 食品安全辩论包括转基因食品对进一步代和环境生物污 染的健康影响等问题，从而破坏天然的生物多样性。在发 达国家，有食品制备复杂的标准，而在不发达的主要问题 是足够的安全用水供应的国家，这通常是一个关键项目。 Foodborne illness, commonly called Dfood poisoning,‖ is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze. 食源性疾病，通常被称为D食物中毒，是由细菌，病毒， 毒素，寄生虫引起的，和朊病毒。大约有 7000000 人死于 食物中毒，每年，约 10 倍的患非致命的版本。最常见的 两种因素导致的细菌性食源性疾病案例都准备吃其它未 煮过的食物和温度控制不当的食物交叉污染。不常见的， 急性不良反应也可以如果食品化学污染的发生的发生， 例 如从储存不当，或使用非食品级的肥皂和消毒剂。食物也 可以掺杂得到了非常广泛的文章 （称为D异物‖） 在农业， 制造，烹饪，包装，分销或销售。这些外国机构可以包括 害虫或它们的粪便，毛，烟头，木屑，和各种各样的其他 污染物。对于某些类型的食物被污染，如果储存或在一个 不安全的容器，它是可能的，如铅釉陶瓷锅。 Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates. The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks. 食物中毒已被公认为人类的疾病早希波克拉底。 腐臭的销 售被污染或掺假食品是司空见惯的， 直到引进卫生， 制冷， 并在第十九世纪的害虫控制。 杀死细菌和其他微生物的研9究， 利用热今天的科学家如路易斯巴斯德促成了现代卫生 标准，在发达国家普遍存在的技术发现。这是进一步支持 的李比希的工作， 其中 LED 的现代食品贮存保鲜方法的发 展。最近几年，一个更深入的了解，对食源性疾病的原因 有 LED 的发展更系统的方法，如危害分析与关键控制点 （HACCP） ，它可以识别和消除各种风险。 The State Food and Drug Administration of China (SFDA) was founded in 2003 as part of China's efforts to improve food safety. The SFDA is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the other health, food, and drug agencies. It is Ddirectly under the State Council, which is in charge of comprehensive supervision on the safety management of food, health food and cosmetics and is the competent authority of drug regulation. ‖ The SFDA encompasses ten departments that regulate and oversee different aspects of food and drug law. These include the General Office Department of Planning and Finance, the Department of Policy and Regulations, the Department of Food Safety Coordination, the Department of Food Safety Supervision, the Department of Drug Registration, the Department of Medical Devices, the Department of Drug Safety and Inspection, the Department of Drug Market Compliance, the Department of Personnel and Education, and the Department of International Cooperation. 中国国家食品药品监督管理局（SFDA）成立于 2003，是 中国努力改善食品安全部。 国家食品药品监督管理局负责 监督和协调其他健康，食物，药品机构。它是D国务院直 属的，这是对食品安全管理的综合监管，保健食品、化妆 品和药品监管当局。 ‖国家食品药品监督管理局包括十个 部门，规范和监督食品和药品法的不同方面。这些措施包 括计划和财政部的办公室，政策法规司，其食品安全协调 部，对食品安全监管部门，该药品注册部，该部的医疗设 备，药品安全检查部门，对药品市场的合规部门，人事教 育部门，与国际合作部。Lesson 27 Spectroscopy 光谱Introduction to Spectroscopy 光谱学导论 (1) What Is Spectroscopy? （1）光谱技术是什么？ Spectroscopy is a technique that uses the interaction of energy with a sample to perform an analysis. 光谱是一种技术， 使用 能量的互动与样品进行分析。 (2) What Is a Spectrum? （2）的频谱是什么？ The data that is obtained from spectroscopy is called a spectrum. A spectrum is a plot of the intensity of energy detected versus the wavelength (or mass or momentum or frequency, etc.) of the energy. 从光谱数据， 称为谱。 光谱是 一个阴谋的检测与波长的能量密度（或质量、动量和能量 的频率，等） 。 (3) What Information Is Obtained?获得什么信息？ A spectrum can be used to obtain information about atomic and molecular energy levels, molecular geometries, chemical bonds, interactions of molecules, and related processes. Often, spectra are used to identify the components of a sample (qualitative analysis). Spectra may also be used to measure the amount of material in a sample (quantitative analysis). 一种光谱可以用来获得关于原子和分子的能量水平， 信息 的分子结构， 化学键， 分子的相互作用， 以及相关的过程。 通常，光谱是用来确定样品的成分（定性分析） 。光谱也可用于测量样品中的物质的量（定量分析） 。 (4) What Instruments Are Needed? （4）需要什么工具？ There are several instruments that are used to perform a spectroscopic analysis. In simplest terms, spectroscopy requires an energy source (commonly a laser, but this could be an ion source or radiation source) and a device for measuring the change in the energy source after it has interacted with the sample (often a spectrophotometer or interferometer). 有几个工具，用于执行光谱分析。在最简单的术语，光谱 需要一个能量源（通常是激光，但这可能是一种离子源或 辐射源） 和一个在它与样品相互作用的测量在能源转换装 置（通常是一个分光光度计或干涉仪） 。 (5) What Are Some Types of Spectroscopy?的光谱中的一些 类型是什么？ There are as many different types of spectroscopy as there are energy sources! Here are some examples: 有许多不同类型的光谱有能源！这里是一些例子： Lesson 28 Chromatography 色谱 Chromatography is a family of analytical chemistry techniques for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing the sample, a mixture which contains the analyte, in the Dmobile phase ‖, often in a stream of solvent, through the D stationary phase.‖ The stationary phase retards the passage of the components of the sample. When components pass through the system at different rates they become separated in time, like runners in a marathon. Ideally, each component has a characteristic time of passage through the system. This is called it's Dretention time.‖ 色谱法是分析化学混合物的分离技术的一个家庭。 它包括 通过样本，其中包含的分析物的混合物，在D移动相‖， 往往在一个流的溶剂，通过D固定相。D固定相阻碍样品 的成分的通道。 当组件通过以不同的速率就在时间上分离 的系统，像一个马拉松运动员。理想情况下，每个组件都 有通道的特征时间通过系统。这被称为是D停留时间‖。 A chromatograph takes a chemical mixture carried by liquid or gas and separates it into its component parts as a result of differential distributions of the solutes as they flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase. Various techniques for the separation of complex mixtures rely on the differential affinities of substances for a gas or liquid mobile medium and for a stationary adsorbing medium thr such as paper, gelatin, or magnesium silicate gel. 气相色谱仪需要的化学混合物的液体或气体， 分离出它的 组成部分， 由于溶质的微分分布作为他们绕流或在一个静 止的液体或固体。 对复杂的混合物分离的各种技术依靠气 体或液体的移动介质和物质的不同亲和力固定吸附介质， 通过它们传递的；如纸，明胶，或硅酸镁凝胶。 Analytical chromatography is used to determine the identity and concentration of molecules in a mixture. Preparative chromatography is used to purify larger quantities of a molecular species. 解析法是用来确定在一个混合的身份和 浓度的分子。制备色谱纯化用大量的分子种类。10