Human Activity and the Environment: Annual Statistics: Section 1: Food in Canada
Language selection
Search and menus
Search website
Section 1: Food in Canada
Archived information
Archived information is provided for reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. It is not subject to the Government of Canada Web Standards and has not been altered or updated since it was archived. Please
to request a format other than those available.
Introduction
Food is much more than a commodity to be bought and sold. We can't
live without it and it plays a significant role in our culture and daily lives.
Canadians represent about 0.5% of the global population,   produce about 1.5% of the food in the world, and consume about 0.6%
of world food production.   In 2004, Canada ranked 8th in the world for production
of cereals, including wheat, 10th in meat
and 19th in fisheries and aquaculture production
(Table ). As the global population increases,
the interdependency of food, energy, water, land and biological resources
becomes more apparent.
As a commodity, food is an important component of Canada's national
economy. In 2007, $92 billion was spent on food and beverages in stores
for household use,   and
an additional $50 billion in restaurants and bars.   More than 70% of the food bought in Canadian stores
in ;was produced domestically.   The
United States is the source of more than half (57%) of imported food, and
similarly 55% of domestic food exports from Canada are directed to the
United States.   While the amount spent on food and alcohol is increasing,
it is not keeping pace with expenditures on other goods and services. In ;Canadians
dedicated 28% of their personal expenditures to food, whereas by ;this
amount had decreased to 17% (Chart ).
Canadians are not only spending more on food, but they are also buying
more calories.  ,   Between 1976 and ;the number of calories available
per person increased 9% from 3,118 to 3,384 kilocalories. Some of
this food however is wasted, and it is estimated that in ;only 71%
of the calories purchased were consumed.   Food that was not consumed includes waste
or spoilage in stores, households, institutions and restaurants, and losses
during preparation.
A common image associated with agricultural food production is the small
mixed farm, but over the years farms have become more specialized and average
farm size has increased. Between ;and 2006, the total farm
area in Canada increased slightly, while the number of farms in operation
decreased almost 70% from 728,623 to 229,373.   In addition
to crop and animal production the commercial fisheries are an important source
of food. In 2005, more than 16,500 marine vessels in Canada
landed more than 1 million tonnes of seafood worth more than $2 billion.  
Food production is much more than just agriculture and fisheries however.
After food is produced or caught it might be handled by wholesalers, processed,
packaged, sold, prepared, repackaged and resold. Many of these steps include
transportation, retail, or advertising services. The type, magnitude and spatial
distribution of these integrated activities is integral to understanding the
impact of food production and services on the environment. Decisions regarding
durable goods, like cars, are made only occasionally: decisions about what
non-durable goods to purchase, like food, are made daily. Typically food goods
are produced using energy-intensive processes whereas services, provided by
retail outlets and restaurants, are less energy-intensive.  ,  
There has been considerable interest in the global diversion of corn from
the food system to produce biofuels. In 2006 Canada contributed almost 600 million
litres, or just over 1% of the global production of 51 billion litres of ethanol.   In Canada, ethanol is
made from wheat in the western provinces, and from corn in Ontario and Quebec.
Production of ethanol in Canada in ;required about 0.5 Mt
of wheat and 1.0 Mt of corn.   This represents 2%
of the total production of 25.3 Mt of wheat and 11% of the
total production of 9 Mt of corn for grain.  
The Canadian food system
The Canadian food system includes all the products produced and the processes
and activities carried out to put food on tables at home, in restaurants and
to provide food products for export. Data collected primarily for economic
reasons can be used to provide insight into the potential impact the food
system has on the Canadian environment (Text box: Important terms).
Primary sector: agriculture and fisheries
Agriculture and fisheries make up the primary food sector, and activities
are carried out in crop production, animal production, aquaculture, and commercial
fisheries. Only about 7% of the total land area in Canada is used for
agriculture, and soil and climate conditions are such that most agricultural
land is concentrated in the southern portion of the country. Almost 70%
of Canada's agricultural land is suitable for growing crops (arable
land). In Australia, a country that supports large herds of grazing animals,
only about 11% of their total agricultural land is arable land. Globally
Canada ranks 7th in the world for total amount of arable land
Food grown in home gardens, or harvested from the wild for personal use,
is a small, but culturally significant, source of food that also belongs in
the primary sector (Text box: Non-commercial food sources). These foods
are not bought and sold in the economy, and data on them are limited.
Secondary sector: food-related manufacturing
The set of activities that are involved in food-related manufacturing make
up the secondary food sector. These activities involve the production of goods
from raw materials, and include food and beverage manufacturing, fertilizer
and pesticide manufacturing, and agricultural machinery manufacturing.
In 2007, food-related manufacturing accounted for 12.1% of total
manufacturing sales, a share that has remained consistent over the last decade.   This
corresponded to $74.2 billion in sales,   and employment of over 219,000 people.  
Tertiary sector: food-related services
The tertiary food sector includes the set of activities related to the
provision of food-related services. It includes for example, transportation,
food services, food retail, wholesale trade of crops and livestock, and marketing.
Important terms
Appreciation of how the following terms are defined in this article will
facilitate the discussion of the environmental complexities that surround
the production, processing and distribution of food in Canada.
Agricultural land: land suitable for agriculture.
Arable land: land that can be used for growing crops.
Canadian food system: includes all the products produced and the
processes and activities carried out to put food on tables at home, in restaurants
and to provide food for export. It also includes the activities associated
with imported foods once they have entered the country.
Employment: employment figures in this article come primarily from
the Labour Force Survey (LFS). According to the LFS, employed persons are
those who, during the survey reference week did any work for pay or profit,
or had a job and were absent from work. This survey reports employment by
industry and occupation based on details related to the main job of the respondent.
Energy-intensity: the amount of energy consumed per unit of economic
Farm: the area of land used for farming activities such as growing
crops and rearing animals. This includes land occupied by farm-buildings.
Farm area: the total area of land on a farm.
Farmland: includes cropland, summerfallow and pasture lands.
Food-related employment: direct and indirect employment related
to the Canadian food system.
Food-related gross domestic product (GDP): the value contributed
to the economy (GDP) by the activities of the Canadian food system, including
direct and indirect effects of expenditures on food.
Greenhouse gas emission intensity: the volume of greenhouse gasses
(GHGs) emitted per unit of economic activity.
Non-commercial food sources
Gardening, hunting, fishing and harvesting wild foods such as mushrooms,
nuts, and berries are activities carried out by many Canadians. These activities
contribute food to our food system that is typically not captured by our statistical
measures. Recent surveys however, have collected data on the use of country
food by the Inuit. The Inuit are the Indigenous peoples of the Arctic who
live mostly in coastal communities in the North.
In 2005, 68% of Inuit adults in the Canadian Arctic harvested
country food. In two-thirds of Inuit households, at least half the meat and
fish eaten was of country origin. The tradition of food sharing remains strong
in the North: in ;eight in ten Inuit households shared harvested
food with others.
Caribou, seals, ducks, whale, fish and berries are examples of country
foods that have been harvested from the wild by Inuit for thousands of years.
The harvesting and sharing of country food is a valuable activity that reinforces
the importance of family and community.
In the North, store-bought food, usually originating in the South, is often
expensive due to high storage and transportation costs. The Revised Northern
Food Basket, which monitors the cost of a nutritious diet for a family of
four for one week, cost between $350 and $450 in northern
isolated communities such as Repulse Bay, Nunavut or Old Crow, Yukon, in ;or 2007.
During the same time period, this food basket cost between $195 and $225 in
southern Canadian cities, such as Ottawa or Edmonton. In addition, foods transported
in from the South are not always fresh, and country food offers a more nutritious
alternative. Country foods are healthy, rich in essential nutrients and low
in sugars and unhealthy fats. The most recent version of the Canada Food Guide
included a guide for First Nations, Inuit and Métis integrating traditional
food from the land and sea.
Source(s):
Health Canada, 2007, Eating Well with Canada's Food Guide:
First Nations, Inuit and Métis,
December 8, 2008).
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 2008, Revised Northern Food
Basket – Highlights of Price Survey Results for ;and 2007, ; (accessed
December 15, 2008).
Tait, Heather, 2008, "Inuit Health and Social Conditions," Aboriginal Peoples Survey, 2006, Statistics Canada Catalogue
no. , no. 001.
Historical perspective on farming and fishing
The history of food in Canada begins with the hunting and gathering, fishing
and farming lifestyles of First Nations peoples. In Eastern Canada, Aboriginal
communities farmed corn, beans and squash around the Great Lakes and the St.
Lawrence, and nomadic groups hunted and gathered throughout the Boreal forest.
Bison were central to life on the plains and salmon to life on the Pacific
In the 16th century, Europeans started fishing for cod
off of Newfoundland. Though records exist on the fish catch back to 1874,
comparisons to the modern day are difficult since records were kept differently.
In 1899, dried cod, dried hake, canned salmon, fresh herring, and fresh
lobster made up the bulk of the commercial catch.  
French settlers began farming in Acadia and New France in the 1600s.
In the west, settlers started farming at the Red River Colony after 1812.
Agriculture took off throughout the Prairies after Confederation since incoming
settlers received title to a quarter section   of land if they
built a home and cultivated a fifth of the area within three years.
In 1921, Canada was largely a rural country, with half of Canadians
living in rural areas,   compared to less than a fifth of the population in 2006.   The number of people living on the farm has also declined since the
early 20th century. Almost a third of Canadians lived on farms
in 1931, compared to 2% in ;(Chart ).
In 1921, agriculture was the single most common occupation, employing 1,041,618
Canadians and accounting for 33% of all jobs, followed by manufacturing (17%),
trade (10%) and transportation (8%).   In comparison, 346,400 Canadians were primarily employed
in agriculture in 2006, accounting for 2% of total employment.  
In 1921, 711,090 farms covered 57.0 million hectares
(ha) of land, with 20.2 million ha of cropland. Since then, the
number of farms has decreased while farm area and the total area of cropland
have increased (Chart ). Production of many
crops, including wheat, barley, grain corn, field peas, flaxseed, and dry
beans has experienced large growth from ;to ;(Chart ). As well, many new crops, including canola, soybeans
and fodder corn are now grown extensively in Canada.
Agricultural productivity improved over this time period as well—increased
use of fertilizers, pesticides, better seed varieties and improved agricultural
practices and technology resulted in increases in the average yield per hectare.
For example, over the past century, the average yield of wheat, oats, barley,
and grain corn all more than doubled.  
As farms specialized, the number of livestock produced in Canada increased.
From ;to 2006, the total number of cattle and calves on
farms grew 88% to 15.8 million. Over the same period, the number
of pigs rose from 3.3 million to 15.0 million, while the
number of chickens rose from 41.1 million to 125.3 million.  
With mechanization, farms switched from horse power to tractors. The number
of horses on farms declined from a peak of 3.5 million in ;to
less than 454 thousand in 2006.   Horses
were generally kept as work animals, but are now used more for recreational
pursuits. Tractor use is now the norm—there were 733,182 tractors
on farms in ;and 92% of farms had at least one tractor.
In comparison only 6% of farms had a tractor in 1921.  
In 2006, 327,070 farmers operated 229,373 farms.   Farming is still mainly a family business
in Canada. In addition, the most economically successful farms are increasingly
larger and more specialized. Gross farm receipts were $42.2 billion
in 2005, up 10% from 2000.   The number of farms with over a million
dollars in receipts has risen in recent decades, with the proportion of million
dollar farms rising from 0.3% in ;to 2.6% in 2005.   These large farms accounted for 40% of total
farm receipts and are more likely to be profitable—86% of farms with
receipts over a million dollars covered their operating costs in ;compared
to 56% of all farms.  
Agriculture, whether it occurs on small or large farms, can result in environmental
impacts. Many practices have been developed that reduce potential negative
environmental impacts from agricultural activities. For example, instead of
leaving fields bare, farmers often retain crop residue on the soil surface
by reducing tillage. The residue cover protects the soil from erosion and
increases the organic matter content of the soil. In addition, careful management
of manure storage and application controls odours and minimizes run-off, protecting
water quality. These two examples of beneficial management practices demonstrate
ways to farm while minimizing risks to the environment.
In 1921, 29,292 people reported fishing or trapping as their
chief occupation or trade, 0.9% of total employment. Historically, fishing
and fish processing contributed heavily to employment in coastal communities,
with many fishers seasonally engaged in fishing. However, the collapse of
cod and other ground fish stocks off the East Coast in the 1990s resulted
in lower employment in the industry. Fishing, aquaculture and seafood processing
employed 70,300 people in 1990, representing 0.5% of total
employment.   By 2006, this figure had declined to 52,100,
accounting for 0.3% of total employment.
Following the decline in the early 1990s, the commercial fish catch
has remained relatively stable in recent years. In 2007, over 1 million
tonnes of fish and shellfish, valued at almost $2 billion, were
harvested.   Shrimp, herring, hake, scallop,
mackerel and lobster made up the bulk of commercial landings.  
Commercial aquaculture dates back to the 1950s. It was not until the 1980s,
however, that production really began to develop.   Aquaculture production grew from 73,187 tonnes in ;to 172,374 tonnes
in 2006, a 136% increase (Chart ).
Many Canadians also enjoy fishing for recreation. Overall, 2.4 million
adult Canadian residents fished in 2005, down from 3.3 million
in 1995. The popularity of recreational fishing varies in different regions
of the country. About one in ten adults fished for fun in 2005, though
this proportion rose to one in three in Newfoundland and Labrador (Chart ).
Catch-and-release sport fishing has become more popular among recreational
fishers. Resident anglers kept one third of their catch in 2005, down
from almost three-quarters in 1985. Tourists were more likely than residents
to participate in catch-and-release fishing.
The Canadian food system includes all the products produced and the processes
and activities carried out to put food on tables at home, in restaurants and
to provide goods for export. This includes the activities of industries in
the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy related to food
production and distribution. While still a multi-billion dollar industry,
the relative contribution of the Canadian food system to gross domestic product
(food-related GDP) and employment has been decreasing (Chart ). This is corroborated by the trend shown in Chart
that total personal spending has increased relatively more than
spending on food and alcohol since 1961. Canadians are also consuming
more overall, and spending a smaller portion of their income on food than
citizens of many other countries (Table ).
Even though the relative contribution of the food system to employment
in Canada has decreased, the number of people employed in this area did increase
slightly over the past four decades. In 1964, 7.1 million people
were employed in Canada, and about 12% of these, or about 820,000 people,
worked in some aspect of the food system. By ;this group had
grown to about 860,000 workers (5% of the total 16.2 million
employed).   In ;the food system contributed $52 billion
to the $1.2 trillion gross domestic product (GDP).  
Input-output tables at Statistics Canada
The input-output component of the Canadian System of National Accounts
at Statistics Canada represents the chain of industrial activities related
to production and final expenditures. This consists of three tables:
gross output of commodities (goods and services), by
industry use of commoditie and
final expenditures of households, business investment, governments and
foreign consumers, by commodity.
Together these tables provide a detailed account of the commodities produced
by industry and of commodities purchased by industry or the final demand sector.
The measures may be used to tie together commodity sales by industry with
industry purchases of those commodities to reveal the extent to which industries
are interdependent. It also shows the extent to which an industry is primarily
serving intermediate or final demand. Typically this information is used in
economic analysis, but it can also be used to show how our activities impact
the environment.
To illustrate, of the 303 industries included in these tabulations, 10 are
responsible for two-thirds of the inputs (measured in dollars) into the Bakery
and Rolls Industry. Five of these 10 industries supply food product
inputs, including flour and sugar, and account for 48% of total inputs.
Other industries, including the Plastic Film, Sheet and Bag Manufacturing
(6% of inputs), and the Electric Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution
(2%) are also in the top ten.
Since the Input-Output tables show the costs of production of goods and
services plus the value of imports, this financial relationship can be used
to gain insight into the environmental implications of economic activities.
For example, sales of bread in ;totalled $2.6 billion.
From the tables described above the relationship between this demand for bread
and the industry activities that produce plastic bags, advertising, electricity,
and a suite of other products is known. Energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
can then be related to total industrial production: energy use and emissions
caused by final expenditures on selected products and services can be estimated.
Source(s): Statistics Canada, 2008, Guide to the Income
and Expenditure Accounts, Catalogue no. .
The information in this section is derived from Canada's input-output
tables, a statistical representation of the interrelation between the various
sectors of the economy. The main feature of simulations based upon these tables
is their ability to estimate the total effects   of spending by consumers, including the
effects of spending that occurred in earlier stages of goods and services
production. Use of the input-output tables also allows us to classify inputs
to the Canadian food system based on whether they come from the primary, secondary
or tertiary sector of the economy. This analysis does not include the foreign
production stimulated by imported goods and services.
Food contributions to gross domestic product
The distribution of food-related GDP across the economy has shifted in
recent decades (Chart ). In 1964, primary
production from agriculture and fisheries contributed 28% to food-related
GDP. By ;this share had decreased to 13%. In contrast the
relative contribution of services (the tertiary sector) increased from 38%
to 56%. This increase is consistent with the general trend in Canada.
Gradually, the proportion of the total economy stemming from services has
been increasing, growing from 65% in ;to 69% in 2004.  
For all products, including food, there is a difference between the price
paid by the consumer and the price received by the producer. This difference,
or margin, is added by wholesalers, retailers, taxes on products, and companies
that transport the goods. In total, margins accounted for 29% of food
costs in 1964, whereas in ;they were responsible for 43%.
Retail margins increased the most, going from 16% of total purchases
in ;to 22% in ;(Chart ). Wholesale margins also increased, rising from 4% in ;to 9%
in 2004. Transportation margins have not increased noticeably over the
period, but transportation services provided by producers, wholesalers and
retailers of food for their own needs are not included in the figures for
transportation margins. There is very little information on this type of transportation.
Since margins are services (rather than goods), their relative increase
has contributed to the shift of food-related GDP to the services sector (Chart ). Another cause of this shift is the increased share
of imports in food purchases. Imports went from 18% of total food expenditures
in ;to 25% in 2004. Margins on food imports contribute
to Canada's GDP, but the production of the imported food contributes
to the GDP of the countries from which food is imported. Imported food does
have a small indirect effect on the GDP of Canada's primary and manufacturing
sectors, but mostly it affects the services sector.
Food processing and other activities that increase the number of steps
between the producer and the consumer add economic value to the product. As
the value added to a product increases, the relative contribution of the production
of the food to the final value decreases. However, the overall environmental
impact increases when intermediate steps are added.
The contribution of the secondary or manufacturing sector to food GDP has
remained relatively constant over the ;to ;time
period (Chart ).
Food contributions to employment
The proportion of Canada's workforce involved with the production
of food for the Canadian food system has decreased in recent decades (Chart ). In ;approximately equal numbers of
workers were employed in primary sector food production as were involved in
providing transportation, retail and restaurant services for the tertiary
sector. By 2004, the relative share of people engaged in producing food
relative to those providing food-related services had declined. Increased
mechanization, increased use of fertilizers and pesticides, and improved management
techniques in recent decades have resulted in fewer people involved in primary
sector food production.
Chart 1.10
People employed in the secondary sector of the food system work in food
processing, and in industries that manufacture pesticides, fertilizers, agricultural
equipment, packaging and other food-related products. The proportion of people
employed in this sector has decreased from 28% to 19% over this
time period, whereas its contribution to food GDP only decreased from 35%
to 31%.
From ;to 2004, the proportion of the total labour force
that worked in the service industries increased from 70% to 75%.   This trend was even more marked for food system
workers, as the proportion of them in the service industries increased from 51%
to 69% over this same time period (Chart ).
This reflects the fact that a greater diversity of food services are available,
including catering and prepared meals to take home. People are spending a
greater portion of their money eating outside the home, and imported foods
increase activities more in the service (tertiary) sector than in the manufacturing
(secondary) sector.
Environment
Putting food on the table and preparing food for export puts pressure on
water, land, climate and air. All three components of the food system—primary,
secondary and tertiary—have environmental impacts.
Some agricultural activities can result in the depletion of soil and water
resources—for example, the current rate at which water resources are
used and soil is eroded puts pressure on the environment. However, other agricultural
management practices can sequester carbon in soils, protect water quality
and provide wildlife habitat. Fisheries can alter ocean and freshwater ecosystems
through over-fishing and introduction of non-native species. While aquaculture
can provide an alternative to traditional fisheries, it contributes to nutrient
pollution from fish waste and the depletion of natural fish stocks to feed
farmed fish.
Distribution of agricultural land
Appropriate soil and climate conditions are essential for successful farming
and most of Canada's land is not suitable for agriculture. According
to the Canada Land Inventory, Canada has 45.7 million hectares of
dependable land that are suitable for long-term annual crop production, representing
about 5% of the total land area of Canada. Most of this dependable land
is farmed, with the exception of that which has been paved over or built on.
In addition, 72.4 million hectares of land are suitable for tame
and native grassland, and may be used for grazing livestock and cutting hay,
but are either marginal or unsuitable for annual crop production.   In 2006, Canada's total area on
farms covered 67.6 million hectares,   or 7% of Canada's
land base. With a limited supply of land suitable for long-term crop production,
increasing the area of cropland can result in a greater reliance on marginal
Canada can be divided into 15 terrestrial ecozones sharing common
ecological characteristics (Map ). Ecozones cross
administrative boundaries and represent large and generalized ecological units
with homogeneous hydrographic, climatic, ecological and topographic characteristics.
Ecozones are further broken down into 194 ecoregions, characterized
by distinctive regional ecological factors, including climate, physiography,
vegetation, soil, water, fauna, and land use (Table ).
Seven of Canada's 15 ecozones have a significant level
of agricultural activity: Boreal Shield, Atlantic Maritime, Mixed Wood Plains,
Boreal Plains, Prairies, Pacific Maritime and Montane Cordillera. However,
farms are not distributed evenly among these ecozones. In 2006, 63%
of Canada's farm area was found in the Prairies, 20% in the Boreal
Plains and 10% in the Mixed Wood Plains, with the remaining 7% in
the other ecozones (Chart ).
The Prairie ecozone (86.6%) and the Mixed Wood Plains ecozone (38.0%) had
the greatest proportion of their land in agriculture (T Map ). Canada's growing population
is putting pressure on some of Canada's most productive farmland: between ;and 2006,
population increased by 56% in the Prairie ecozone (Table ). Generally the greatest use of farmland in each ecozone is for
field crops. The Montane Cordillera, which has a large focus on beef production,
is an exception with the majority of its land in pasture.
Chart 1.11
Impacts on land
The productive capacity of Canada's farmland is vital to support
its population and to contribute to global food production. Proper land management
can increase soil fertility, serving to preserve and enhance farmland, but
some agricultural practices can have negative impacts.
Wildlife use of agricultural habitat
Agro-ecosystems, which include cropland, grazing land, wetlands, woodlands
and natural grasslands, support many species. In fact, over 500 species
of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians are known to use land on Canadian
farms. Of the terrestrial vertebrates listed as species at risk in ;by
the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, approximately
half were found on farms. Changes in agro-ecosystems can therefore impact
biodiversity, and agricultural producers can play a significant role in sustaining
biodiversity.  
Measuring the impacts of agricultural land-use changes on wildlife is of
interest to researchers and policy analysts alike (Text box: National Agri-Environmental
Health Analysis and Reporting Program). Suitable wildlife habitat must
contain specific components that are critical for wildlife survival—food,
water, shelter and space, and also provide for needs such as reproduction,
dispersal and migration. One study has shown that from ;to 2001,
there was a 5% decrease in wildlife habitat capacity on Canada's
farms. This decrease was associated with an expansion in cropland from 47%
to 54% of total farm area and a decline in species-rich natural pasture
from 25% to 23%. The Prairie Provinces saw a small decline in habitat
capacity while greater decreases occurred in Eastern Canada. Saskatchewan
was the only province in which an increase in habitat capacity occurred between ;and 2001.  
Many management practices benefit species habitat. Conserving natural land,
such as grasslands, wetlands and woodlands, protecting riparian areas (buffer
zones) bordering streams and rivers and delayed haying and grazing until after
most songbirds and waterfowl have left the nest, are a few examples.  
National Agri-Environmental Health Analysis and Reporting Program
In 1993, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) established a set
of agri-environmental indicators with the goal of assessing the impacts of
agricultural policies on the environment. These indicators determined how
environmental conditions within agriculture were changing over time, and how
such changes could be explained. The National Agri-Environmental Health Analysis
and Reporting Program (NAHARP) builds on this initial work. The program's
purpose is to strengthen departmental capacity to develop and continuously
enhance agri-environmental indicators and tools to integrate these indicators
with policy development. NAHARP uses three complementary approaches: agri-environmental
integrated economic/environmental mode and
agri-environmental valuation.
In addition to agricultural indicators, the following three indicators
for the food and beverage industry are under development by NAHARP: energy
use and greenhouse gas emissions, water use and effluent generation, and organic
solid residues and packaging wastes.
Source(s): Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2007, NAHARP Summary,
(accessed October 9, 2008).
Tillage is the preparation of soil for planting or seeding by plowing and
cultivating. Conventional tillage incorporates or buries most of the previous
year's crop residue into the soil. Conservation tillage retains most
of the crop residue on the surface and involves minimal tillage. No-till involves
direct seeding into crop residue, avoiding any mechanical tillage of the soil.  
The type of tillage used depends on specific conditions such as climate,
soil and crop type. Cereal grains, oil seeds and beans are easily grown using
conservation or no-till practices. Potatoes, however, are generally grown
using conventional tillage. While conventional tillage can increase porosity
and loosen soil, it breaks up soil structure, making it more subject to compaction,
which reduces water infiltration, air exchange and root penetration. It also
leaves soil more vulnerable to wind and water erosion and accelerates the
decomposition of organic matter. Reduced tillage conserves moisture, soil
structure and organic matter, and minimizes the risk of erosion. No-till seeding
involves fewer passes with machinery through fields, resulting in fuel and
labour savings.
In Canada, land prepared for seeding using conventional tillage decreased
from 69% in ;to 28% in ;(Table ). Land prepared for seeding using conservation tillage
remained relatively stable, rising slightly from 24% to 26% and
no-till increased from 6% to 46%. No-till practices were most common
in the Prairie ecozone, where 53% of the land prepared for seeding was
prepared using no-till practices in 2006, up from 8% in 1991.
Reduced tillage results in economic and environmental benefits. Total fuel
expenses for farmers that used no-till seeding, on average, were $39/ha
seeded. Farmers that used conventional tillage however, on average, spent $110/ha
seeded on fuel.   This reduction in fuel use also
reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
Soil erosion
Soil erosion, the movement of soil from one area to another, removes nutrient
rich topsoil and contributes to the breakdown of soil structure, affecting
soil fertility and the movement of water into and from the soil surface. Erosion
can also have 'off-site' impacts on the environment, including
transport and deposit of soil particles to new locations and the release of
nutrients, pesticides, pathogens and toxins.   In addition, aquatic habitats are affected
by sedimentation.  
Soil erosion can occur by wind and water action, which can be influenced
by agricultural activities such as tillage. Water-induced soil erosion is
usually the result of rainfall and snowmelt surface run-off events. In addition
to sedimentation of streams, rivers and lakes, the eroded soil can carry crop
nutrients, pesticides and bacteria, which affect water quality and reduce
habitat for fish and other aquatic organisms. According to the National Agri-Environmental
Health Analysis and Reporting Program report, 86% of cropland had a very
low risk of water erosion in 2001. The risk declined in most provinces
between ;and 2001, with a decrease of 8% nationally.
Practices that help control water erosion include: using reduced tillage and
ma planting row crops across the slope or following the
land' winter cover cropping where soils are
at risk of erosion by winter run- and including forages such as hay and
alfalfa in crop rotations.  
The risk of wind-induced soil erosion is greatest in the dry Prairie Provinces
where expanses of cultivated land have little protection from the wind. The
risk of wind erosion decreased 40% between ;and 2001,
with the proportion of land in the low to very low risk classes increasing
from 84% in ;to 92% in 2001. The risk of wind
erosion in the Prairies declined steadily between ;and ;because
of changes in cropping systems and tillage practices.   The most notable changes include a 50% reduction in the amount
of summerfallow—land left unsown to conserve
dou and a dramatic increase in reduced-tillage systems.
Impacts on water
Technologies involving mechanization, genetics, nutrient science and irrigation
have fostered increases in crop and livestock production. Likewise, technologies
used in fisheries and aquaculture have also resulted in increased yields.
However, use of some of these technologies can impact water quality and availability.
In addition, food manufacturing is dependent on water. In 2005, total
water intake by Canadian manufacturing industries was 7,779 million
cubic metres. Food industries accounted for 17.6%, or 1,367 million
cubic metres, of this water.  
Nutrients and pesticides
Commercial fertilizers and livestock manure provide nutrients essential
to plant growth, such as nitrogen and phosphorus. When applied under ideal
conditions and at optimum rates, fertilizers and manure have minimal water
quality impacts. However, care must be taken to ensure that they are applied
correctly to minimize runoff and leaching, which typically occur during episodes
of intense rainfall and spring snowmelt.  
When applied improperly, nutrients in fertilizer and manure can run off
into surface water bodies and leach into groundwater. Nitrogen and phosphorus
can encourage excessive aquatic plant growth. When these plants die and decompose,
dissolved oxygen is removed from the water—a process known as eutrophication—making
it uninhabitable for fish and other forms of aquatic life.  
Between ;and 2006, there was an increase in the amount
of fertilized area in each of the seven ecozones with significant agricultural
activity (Table ). The greatest increases were
observed in the Prairies ecozone (381%) and the Montane Cordillera ecozone
Livestock manure is rich in nutrients and organic matter, making it a valuable
fertilizer for crop production. It can however also be a source of odours
and pathogens.   Proper management can
make the difference between a valuable resource and a pollutant.
In 2006, livestock produced 168 million tonnes of manure
(Table ), a 12% increase since 1981.   Manure production was concentrated
in central and southern Alberta, located in the Prairies ecozone, as well
as in south-western Ontario, and south-eastern Quebec, both located in the
Mixed Wood Plains ecozone. Beef cattle were responsible for the largest proportion
of manure produced in Alberta, whereas a wide range of animals, including
poultry, beef cattle, milk cows and pigs, contributed to manure production
in Ontario and Quebec.  
This manure contained 1 million tonnes of nitrogen, 279 thousand
tonnes of phosphorus and 602 thousand tonnes of potassium. The Pacific
Maritime ecozone had the highest nutrient production from manure per farm
area (Table ) due to substantial poultry, egg
and dairy production relative to the amount of farmland in the region. However,
not all of this manure is spread in the ecozone—it can be transported
to other farms or dried and bagged for sale.   The total quantity of manure alone is not an indication of its environmental
impact as each type of livestock manure has specific nutrient and odour characteristics.
Considerable effort is required to handle such a large volume of manure.
Collecting, transporting and spreading all require time and energy. Manure
can be used in place of chemical fertilizers, reducing costs. However, care
must be taken to avoid environmental impacts. Several provinces have strict
legislation with regards to manure handling and nutrient management. Soil
and manure nutrient testing prior to application is the best way to determine
the right amount to apply since different crops have different nutrient demands.
Pesticides are applied to agricultural crops to control weeds, insects
and other pests. While pesticides can help maintain crop yields and quality,
they also have the potential to contaminate water through runoff and infiltration
into groundwater. In 2005, the herbicide application area on farms was 190%
higher compared to 1970. In 2005, the largest land area with herbicide
application was found in Saskatchewan, followed by Alberta and Manitoba (Chart ). Herbicide use has allowed a move to reduced summerfallow
and increased no-till planting with the associated environmental benefits
of that practice. Between ;and 2006, farmers in the Boreal
Plains and Prairies ecozones had the greatest increase in expenditures per
land area on chemical products (Table ).
Chart 1.12
Farmers are also using a number of non-chemical alternative methods of
pest control. In 2006, the most common method was rotating crops, accounting
for 33% of all alternative methods of pest control across Canada. Other
common methods include tillage (16%) and use of pest resistant plants (13%).  
Water is essential to crop and livestock production. In 2001, agricultural
water use to irrigate crops, water livestock, spray pesticides and wash machinery
in Canada was estimated at 4.8 billion cubic metres.   The majority (92%)
of this water was used for irrigation. Different climate conditions and crop
requirements mean that agricultural water use varies from one region to another.
Agricultural water use in Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia accounted
for 92% of the national total in 2001.
Seven percent of Canadian farms reported irrigation in 2005. Of the
total land area irrigated in Canada in 2005, 64% was in Alberta
and an additional 14% was in British Columbia.   In 2007, 91% of Canadian irrigators reported using one
or more practices to conserve water and energy.   Of farmers that were known to irrigate, 60% used water to clean
farm buildings or equipment, and 54% used water to spray pesticides or
fertilizers (Table ).
Water consumption by industry, calculated as water intake minus water discharge,
provides an indication of the amount of water lost during production, most
commonly through the incorporation of water into the products or through evaporation.
In 2005, water consumption for manufacturing industries was estimated
at 1,051.1 million cubic metres or 13.5% of the total water
intake of 7,778.9 million cubic metres.   Food industries
were the largest consumers of water, consuming 272.7 million cubic
metres or 25.9% of the total.  
Commercial fisheries
Commercial fisheries face several environmental issues, including overfishing,
bycatch and habitat damage. Overexploitation became an increasing concern
in the late 1980s. In the Atlantic provinces, over-fishing caused many
groundfish stocks to decline severely and the federal government imposed moratoria
on cod and other fisheries. Similarly, on the West Coast a marked decline
in salmon stocks was noted beginning in 1995. The decline in salmon landings
has been attributed in part to habitat destruction stemming from logging activities,
road construction, industrial pollution, agricultural run-off and urbanization.  
In addition to a reduction in overall biomass of commercially exploited
fish, there has been a decrease in the size structure of several species.   Larger, more valuable fish are targeted
by fishing activities, reducing the average size of fish in the population.
As a result, reproductive capacity is affected because smaller fish produce
fewer eggs.  ,  
Bycatch, the capture of non-target species while fishing, can include fish
that are unmarketable, undersized or endangered. It is estimated that the
trawl fisheries of the Scotian Shelf catch 50 to 400 species
in addition to targeted species.   Most bycatch
is discarded. The type of fishing gear used can affect the likelihood and
amount of bycatch and some gear can cause habitat damage. For example, trawling
and dredging cause changes in ocean floor communities and reduce the productivity
of their habitats.  ,  
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shellfish, and other aquatic animals
or plants, in fresh or salt water. These products can be grown inland in freshwater
facilities, ponds, freshwater lakes and bays, or in the open ocean.   As demand for seafood increases, the use of aquaculture as a complement
to traditional fisheries may remove pressure from wild stocks. Aquaculture
contributes a growing proportion of fish production, rising from 7% in ;to 14%
in ;(by weight).   There is concern however
about the environmental impacts of aquaculture.
Fish wastes from aquaculture can be problematic if the receiving waters
are unable to assimilate them and become polluted as a result. Organic wastes
include nitrates and phosphates. These wastes can impact coastal ecosystems
and habitats   by stimulating local algal blooms, resulting in waters with inadequate
oxygen. They can also cause sedimentation under net pens.  
Aquaculture also has the potential to impact aquatic ecosystem biodiversity.
Some farmed fish are fed a diet derived from wild fish stocks and they can
spread pathogens to native populations. Fish may escape from aquaculture pens
to the wild where they can prey on native fish species and compete for limited
resources.  
Inland, closed-system farms for species such as rainbow trout, tilapia,
channel catfish, sturgeon and Arctic char may have fewer environmental impacts
than open-ocean farms or pens in bays and inlets. These inland systems are
not in contact with wild fish populations and therefore avoid harm through
habitat damage and degradation, pollution and disease outbreaks.  
Impacts on climate
GHG emissions
According to the National Inventory Report , greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture, not including energy use, increased 12.4 Mt,
or 25%, between ;and ;(Table ). Agriculture contributed 62 Mt or 8.6% of Canada's
total GHG emissions in 2006.   Agricultural emissions related
to the use of fossil fuels for energy—including driving tractors and
heating and drying grain—are reported under energy production and use.
In 2006, the net storage of GHGs in cropland was 1.4 Mt. The
continued adoption of no-till and reduced tillage practices, and the reduction
of summerfallow, have resulted in a trend of increasing removals of GHGs to
cultivated soils.  
In 2006, 56% of the GHG emissions from agriculture were from nitrous oxide
(N2O) and 44% were from methane (CH4).   Both N2O and CH4 are stronger GHGs than carbon
dioxide (CO2). The emission sources from the agricultural sector
include livestock digestive processes (CH4), manure (N2O
and CH4), fertilizers (N2O) and crop production (N2O). Contributing factors to the increase in GHG emissions from the
agricultural sector include the expansion of the beef cattle and swine industries,
and increases in the use of nitrogen fertilizers.  
While the National Inventory Report tracks the amount of GHG emitted,
it is also possible to compare GHG emission intensities for various industries.   For example, crop and animal production emitted 3.1 tonnes
of CO2 equivalent emissions per thousand current dollars of production
(T CO2 eq/$1000) in 2004.
GHGs are also emitted during food-related manufacturing. With emissions
of 4.0 T CO2 eq/$1000, Pesticides, fertilizer and other
agricultural chemical manufacturing industry had the highest emission intensity
of the 56 secondary industries. Seven of the 12 food or
beverage manufacturing industries ranked in the top 20: Meat product
manufacturing was fifth at 1.9 T CO2 eq/$;and
Dairy product manufacturing was seventh with emissions of 1.7 T
CO2 eq/$1000. Overall, emissions intensity has declined since ;49 of
the 56 industries in this sector decreased their GHG emission intensity
in ;relative to ;levels.  
Impacts on air
Criteria air contaminants (CACs) are a group of pollutants that cause smog,
acid rain and other environmental problems. Agriculture is a significant source
of two CACs—ammonia (NH3) and particulate matter (PM). Ammonia
is a gas that is irritating to the eyes, nose and throat when inhaled in low
concentrations. It also interacts with sulfates and nitrates to form secondary
fine particulate matter (PM2.5) which can have harmful effects
on both human health and the environment.  
Agriculture is the main source of atmospheric NH3 emissions.
In 2006, agriculture was responsible for 90% of total ammonia emissions
in Canada.   These emissions are attributed to both
livestock and poultry waste management and to pesticide and fertilizer application.
Particulate matter consists of airborne particles in liquid or solid form.
Particulate matter has been linked to a number of cardiac and respiratory
diseases and to various forms of heart disease. It can also have adverse effects
on vegetation and structures, and contribute to reduced visibility and poor
air quality.   In 2006, agriculture was the third
largest source of particulate matter emissions. It was responsible for 12%
of total emissions, following construction operations (20%) and dust from
roads (62%).  
Food is intertwined with culture, traditions and family. Canada's
diverse food choices reflect history and immigration patterns. Canadians have
embraced both traditional foods such as salmon, roast beef and tourtière
to foods introduced more recently, including pizza, chow mein, perogies, curries
The Canadian diet has changed considerably from the country's early
history when the majority of food needs were met locally. Canadians are confronted
by an ever-increasing variety of foods. There are now dozens of breakfast
cereals to choose from and fresh fruits and vegetables that were once considered
exotic are now available throughout the year.   For example,
between ;and ;the total fruit available per person
increased from 88.3 kg to 137.4 kg. Mangoes and guavas
were first recorded as contributing to this total in 1980, and by ;they
contributed 1.3 kg per person per year.  
Food is also important from an employment perspective—it affects
not only the farmers and fishers who produce it, but also those involved in
transporting, warehousing and selling, and those involved in preparing and
serving it.
The impact of human activities on the environment is complex. In an effort
to facilitate communication of these impacts, use of concepts of virtual or
embedded resources is increasing (Text box: Embedded energy and virtual
water). While these measures are approximations, the fact that they provide
a common measure of the relative environmental cost of activities is informative.
All the processes involved in food production, manufacturing, distribution,
and retailing require energy: most result in the emission of greenhouse gases,
other pollution and waste. In 2006, the food industry spent $317.9 million
in operating expenses for environmental protection, with an additional $123.8 million
on capital expenditures. Most of these funds were dedicated to waste management
and sewerage services, pollution abatement and control processes and pollution
prevention processes.  
Embedded energy and virtual water
Embedded energy refers to the quantity of energy that is needed to produce
and deliver a product, or a service, to its consumer. It is sometimes also
referred to as 'virtual' or 'hidden' energy. Similarly,
virtual water refers to the water used in the production of a good or a service,
and is the sum of the water used in the various steps of the production chain.
The concept of virtual or embedded resources helps us become conscious
of how much water and energy is needed to produce goods and to provide services,
and it offers insight into the environmental impact of these activities. Furthermore,
this information is applicable when goods and services are traded between
countries that may have different resource availabilities.
What is on the Canadian table?
The Canada Food Guide recommends the number of food servings Canadians
should eat each day depending on age and sex.   For example, women aged 19 to 50 should have 7 to 8 servings
of vegetables and fruit, 6 to 7 servings of grain products, 2 servings
of milk and alternatives, and 2 servings of meat and alternatives
on a daily basis.
Since 1976, the average number of calories available per person from
Canada's food supply has increased 9% from 3,118 kcal
to 3,384 kcal (Chart ).  
Not all this food is eaten—wastage occurs from spoilage and other
losses in stores, in restaurants and in the home. In 2007, loss of solid
food was estimated at over 6.0 million tonnes between retail level
and the plate—the equivalent of 183 kg per person.  ,   Another 2.8 billion
litres of liquids including milk and milk products, coffee, tea, pop and juices
were also wasted. These losses do not include losses at the production level
or during food processing.
Waste food can be composted, but often ends up as landfill or down the
drain. Food waste also represents a waste of other resources, as considerable
water, energy, and greenhouse gas emissions are involved in producing, transporting,
and preparing food.
Over 70% of the food Canadians buy is produced domestically, including 80%
of meat and dairy products and 76% of breads and cereals. Imports account
for 40% of all fish and fruit and vegetables.  
In 2007, about $24 billion worth of food was imported into
Canada from 198 different countries.   The
top ten countries provided 80% of the value of food imports: countries
outside of North America provided 40% (Table ).
Chart 1.13
Canadians spend less proportionately on food today than they did in the
past. In 1913, in 60 cities, staple foods made up more than
half a family's weekly budget.   Since then, food has become
relatively less expensive, and spending on other goods and services has increased.
In 1961, spending on food, including restaurant meals and alcoholic beverages
made up 28% of total consumer spending in Canada. By 2007, this
figure had declined to 17% (Chart ).
Canadians spent $75 billion on food and non-alcoholic beverages
from stores in 2007. The largest shares were spent on meat and fish products
and fruits and vegetables (16% each). Bread and cereals and dairy products
(including eggs) were next at 12% each.   Spending
on beer, wine and liquor bought from stores totalled $17 billion.
Buying organic food is becoming a popular practice. In 2007, 45%
of households reported that they often or sometimes bought organic food products,
and 5% bought organic food all of the time.   Forty-eight percent of households rarely or never
bought organic.
Organic food products are grown or produced using organic production methods.
While there are many requirements that must be followed, in general organic
agriculture avoids the use of chemical fertilizers, synthetic pesticides and
veterinary drugs, genetically modified organisms and certain food processing
and preservation substances.   Organic producers are also required
to keep strict records to document organic integrity. Canada's organic
principles emphasize the importance of protecting the environment, minimizing
soil degradation, erosion and pollution, optimizing biological productivity,
and ensuring the humane treatment of animals.
Over 15,500 farms, or 6.8% of all farms in Canada, produced
organically grown food products in 2006. The highest proportion was found
in British Columbia, where 16.3% produced food using organic methods
(Table ). Not all farms were certified organic—meaning
that their organic production methods and products were verified by a certification
body. Just over 3,500 farms were fully certified in ;and 640 farms
were making the transition to full organic certification.
Certain provinces require goods carrying the label 'organic'
to be certified. The new national Organic Products Regulations, which
come into force June 30, 2009, require that all organic products
imported, exported or sold in other provinces be certified by an accredited
certification body. While only farms that are certified will be able to use
the term 'organic,' other farmers may choose to follow some or
all of the organic principles for stewardship or business reasons, and must
follow an array of regulations safeguarding health, the environment and animal
Eating out in restaurants or calling for take-out is a regular social activity
for many. In 2007, Canadians spent $41 billion on restaurant
meals and $9 billion on alcoholic beverages in licensed establishments,
the equivalent of over $1,500 per person.   In 2007, 95%
of households bought food from restaurants.  
Cooking at home and eating out in restaurants are not highly polluting
activities. However, the broader impacts of these activities, resulting from
energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, food waste and other garbage which must
be disposed of, should be recognized.
Energy and greenhouse gas emissions involved in the production of food
for households
From ;to 2003, household activities led directly or
indirectly to between 45% and 50% of the total greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions produced in Canada each year. About one-third of household emissions
resulted directly from motor fuel use and fuel use in the home. The other
two-thirds came indirectly from the production of the goods and services that
households purchased.  
In 2003, Canadians spent $63.5 billion on food and non-alcoholic
beverages purchased from stores.   These purchases
resulted in production of 45,687 kilotonnes of greenhouse gases,
equivalent to 14% of all the direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions
attributable to households.  
Numerous steps are required to put food on the table, and many of these
steps require energy and result in GHG emissions. Fuel is used to till land
fertilizers and pesticides are manufactured and applied, food
is harvested and shipped to processing plants, and electricity is used to
wash and package food.
The analysis presented in this section makes use of data from the national
Input-Output tables (Text box: Input-output tables at Statistics Canada). Analysis done with these tables permits calculation of energy use and
GHG emissions related to any of 719 categories of goods and services,
including food products. The results include the energy use and GHG emissions
associated with foreign production of imported food products (Text box:
A note on methodology).
Almost one quarter of all food-related GHG emissions in ;were
attributable to the production of fresh and frozen meat, while fish products
contributed the least (2%). Prepared foods and dairy and eggs each contributed
about 20% to food-related GHG emissions in ;(Chart ). Significant sources of GHG emissions from food production
include the use of fertilizers (N2O), manure management (N2O and CH4), and livestock digestive processes (CH4).
Looking at the amount of energy required to produce food shows another
dimension of the environmental impact of the food system (Chart ). Energy use is more evenly distributed across the food categories
than GHG emissions, but the top three categories are the same. More energy
was used in the production of prepared foods than other food groups (19%),
reflecting the energy inputs required for processing these foods. Dairy and
eggs accounted for 18% of the energy use and fresh and frozen meat accounted
for 14%.
Chart 1.14
Chart 1.15
In 2003, spending on seven individual commodities accounted for 40%
of GHG emissions and 31% of total energy use related to food (Table ). Beef and cheese ranked first and second for
percent contributions to both total GHG emissions and total energy use. While
similar amounts of energy were used to produce these foods in 2003, overall
spending on beef resulted in more than double the GHG emissions.
A note on methodology
The data used in the section, 'Energy and greenhouse gas emissions' involved
in the production of food for households' are derived from Statistics
(MEFA). These accounts integrate
environmental data with the economic data from Canada's System of National
Accounts (CSNA). The CSNA is the source of a number of Statistics Canada's
most important indicators of economic activity, including gross domestic product
(GDP). One of the main components of the CSNA are the Input-Output (I/O) accounts
which produce highly detailed production and consumption statistics for 303 industries, 719 goods
and services and 170 categories of final demand.
The MEFA follow the I/O accounting framework to track the use of energy
and the generation of emissions by each industry and final demand sector.
The flows are linked through the common industrial and commodity classification
of the I/O tables. This linkage allows analysis of the interplay between economic
activity and greenhouse gas emissions.
The accounts used for this analysis only include the three main greenhouse
gases, namely carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, and do not include
emissions from the decomposition or incineration of waste.
Emissions factors from Environment Canada are applied to Statistics Canada's
energy use account data, which are also based on the CSNA industry and commodity
frameworks. The energy use data come mainly from Statistics Canada's Industrial
Consumption of Energy Survey, transportation surveys, the Report on Energy
Supply-Demand in Canada and Natural Resources Canada's Census of Mines.
Direct household emissions are the greenhouse gases that are emitted
when people drive their vehicles for personal use and use fossil fuels to
heat their homes.
Indirect household emissions are the greenhouse gases that are emitted
when industries produce the goods and services that people purchase for household