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https://www.baidu.com/s?wd=From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from )
Belligerents
  (1657–59)
Commanders and leaders
Caribbean:
Caribbean:
The Anglo-Spanish War was a conflict between the
and Spain, between 1654 and 1660. It was caused by commercial rivalry. Each side attacked the other's commercial and colonial interests in various ways such as
and naval expeditions. In 1655, an English
expedition invaded Spanish territory in the Caribbean. The major land actions took place in the . In 1657, England formed an alliance with France, merging the Anglo–Spanish war with the larger . The war officially ended with two peace treaties which were signed at
came to an end, Cromwell turned his attention to England's traditional enemies, France and Spain. Although Cromwell believed it to be God's will that the
should prevail in Europe, he pursued a foreign policy that was at once pragmatic and realistic, allying himself with Catholic France that was engaged in a major and longstanding war with Superpower Catholic Spain. In essence, by going to war with Spain he was seeking a return to a policy of commercial opportunism pursued in the days of
and subsequently abandoned by the . Cromwell's attack on Spanish trade and treasure routes immediately recalled t and it is not by accident that printed accounts of their activities began to circulate in England at this time. There was, however, one important difference: alongside silver and gold a new treasure was becoming ever more important – sugar. This meant occupation of territory, a step beyond the piracy pursued in Elizabethan days.
During the first year of the Protectorate, Cromwell conducted negotiations with the French
, resulting in the drafting of an Anglo-French alliance against Spain in October 1655. The alliance had an added benefit of keeping the French from helping the Stuarts to regain the throne of England for a few more years.
Meanwhile, Cromwell had already launched the Western Design against Spain's colonies in the . The fleet left
in late December 1654 and arrived in the West Indies in January. In May 1655, an English
expedition led by
, father of , and General
invaded Spanish territory in the West Indies with the objective of capturing . It was one of the strongest ever to sail from England, with some 3,000 marines under the command of , further reinforced in , , .
Although Cromwell had previously been interested in the possible acquisition of
island, the expedition's commanders were given the freedom to determine their own priorities in the circumstances they faced on arrival. Several options were considered, including a landing on the coast of
or on . Both were discounted, as Penn and Venables decided to attempt to repeat Drake's attack on
on . However, the 1655
failed because the Spanish had improved their defences in the face of Dutch attacks earlier in the century. Cromwell, on the other hand, saw the Hispaniola defeat as God's judgement. Despite various subsequent successes, the defeat made the whole operation against the
a general failure. Venables and Penn were imprisoned therefore in the
on their arrival on England.
Jamaica was the
that resulted in the actual Anglo-Spanish War in 1655. Weakened by fever, the English force then sailed west for the
(present day ), the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works. They landed in May 1655 at a place called Santiago de la Vega, now . They came, and they stayed, in the face of prolonged local resistance that was reinforced by troops sent from Spain and
(México). In 1657 the English Governor invited the
to base themselves at
on Santiago, to deter the Spanish from recapturing the island. For England, Jamaica was to be the 'dagger pointed at the heart of the Spanish Empire', although in fact it was a possession of little value then. Cromwell, despite all difficulties, was determined that the presence should remain, sending reinforcements and supplies. New Spanish troops sailing from Cuba, lost the
in 1657 and the
in 1658, failing in their attempts to retake Jamaica. Nevertheless the fear of another invasion meant that the English
Edward D'Oyley felt his new duty was to organize the defence of the island against the Spanish. By using the tactic of attacking instead of defending, he sent out
to raid Spanish colonial cities and bases.
were among them in 1658 and the following year ,
were plundered and devastated and Myngs returned to Jamaica with a vast amount of plunder and treasure.
Admiral Robert Blake
In April 1656 English Admiral Robert Blake with a fleet of around forty warships, fireships and supply vessels sailed to
the Spanish port of
which continued throughout the summer. The Spanish remained on the defensive and took no aggressive action against the English fleet. In mid-June, Captain Edward Blagg sailed with eight ships to raid ports in northern Spain. On 24 June, Blagg raided , where a number of ships in the harbour were destroyed. While Blake replenished his water supplies on the African coast, a detachment of five frigates under a Captain Smith
in southern Spain on 19 July. Smith sank nine Spanish ships, spiked the harbour guns and bombarded the town. A similar raid on
was unsuccessful, but the threat of attack disrupted trade all along the coasts of Spain. On the evening of 8 September, one of Blake's captains, Richard Stayner,
and captured or sank all but two of its ships. The loss of the cargoes of the ships captured or sunk by the English was a serious blow to the economy of Spain with an estimated loss of 2,000,000. For the first time in naval history, Blake kept the fleet at sea throughout an entire winter in order to maintain the blockade against Spain.
In February 1657, Blake received intelligence that the plate fleet from
was on its way across the Atlantic. Leaving two ships to watch Cadiz, Blake sailed from there to attack the plate fleet, which had docked at
to await an escort to Spain. In April in the , Blake completely destroyed the Spanish merchant convoy—the West Indian Fleet— Fortunately for Spain, the fleet had landed the bullion before the battle. Blake was unable to seize it, but it was also unavailable to the government in Madrid.
The long-term effect of Blake's blockade of Spain and his victory at Santa Cruz was the disruption of the Spanish economy, which depended upon silver and gold from the Americas and also crippled Spain's capacity for waging war. The English lost 1,500 to 2,000 merchant ships to Spanish privateers and instead of using captured English ships to replace their destroyed convoys, the Spanish government placed the care of Spanish trade in the hands of neutral Dutch merchantmen.
An Anglo-French alliance against Spain was established when the
was signed in March 1657. Based on the terms of the treaty, the English would join with France in
in . France would contribute an army of 20,000 men, England would contribute both 6,000 troops and the English fleet in a campaign against the Flemish coastal fortresses of ,
and . It was agreed that Gravelines would be ceded to France, Dunkirk and Mardyck to England. Dunkirk, in particular, was on the Commonwealth's mind mainly because of the privateers that were causing damage to the mercantile fleet. For Cromwell and the Commonwealth, the question of possession of Dunkirk thus passed from regional diplomatic possibility to urgent political necessity.
Map showing the siege of Dunkirk and the Battle of the Dunes in 1658. Also present are the blockading British fleet
The combined Anglo-French army for the invasion of Flanders was commanded by the great French Marshal . The Spanish Army of Flanders was commanded by Don , an illegitimate son of the Spanish King . The Spanish army of 15,000 troops was augmented by a force of 3,000 English Royalists—formed as the nucleus of potential army for the invasion of England by , with Charles's brother , among its commanders.
fleet blockaded Flemish ports but, to Cromwell's annoyance, the military campaign started late in the year and was subject to many delays. Marshal Turenne spent the summer of 1657 campaigning against the Spanish in
and made no move to attack Flanders until September. Mardyck was captured on 22 September and garrisoned by Commonwealth troops. Dunkirk was besieged in May 1658. A Spanish relief force attempted to lift the siege but was defeated on 4 June at the . The Commonwealth contingent in Turenne's army fought with distinction and impressed their French allies with a successful assault up a strongly defended sandhill 150 feet high during the battle. When Dunkirk surrendered to Turenne on 14 June, Cardinal Mazarin honoured the terms of the treaty with Cromwell and handed the port over to the Commonwealth, despite the protests of . The Commonwealth also honoured its obligations in respecting the rights of the Catholic populations of Mardyck and Dunkirk. A contingent of Commonwealth troops remained with Turenne's army and were instrumental in the capture of Gravelines and other Flemish towns by the French. With the privateering threat of Dunkirk threat out of the way, England's mercantile fleet suffe not only because the
had lost their largest base but also because English trade had already been largely lost to the Dutch.
The war between France and Spain ended with the signing of the
on 28 October 1659. Cromwell's death in 1658 left England in political turmoil that would result in the return of the Stuarts to the throne of England. After the
of Charles II in England, the Anglo-Spanish War was formally terminated in September 1660. Charles
to Louis XIV of France in November 1662 – though less than ?300,000 of the promised half million was ever paid. Although the Western Design failed in its primary objective of capturing the island of Hispaniola, as a first step toward the conquest of Central America, Jamaica remained an English colony despite the exiled king's promise to return it after the Restoration. The purpose of the Western Design survived the Protectorate itself, later to be revived in the raids of
under the behest of the Jamaican governor . Modyford's pretexts for licensing the buccaneers was his suspicion that
would never be secure until the Spanish government acknowledged England's possession of Jamaica and
and named it in a treaty.
England and Spain had both suffered heavy economic losses. Spain suffered, mainly from Blake's blockade of Cadiz. The effect of this, particularly with the action off Cadiz and at Santa Cruz, was the disruption of the Spanish economy, which depended upon silver and gold from the Americas. This added to the difficulties of Philip's IV's armies, who for years had been on the defensive in their campaigns in Italy, the Pyrenees, Flanders and Portugal. The Spanish answered with a privateering campaign that all but wiped out English shipping trade. Consequently, the Dutch enjoyed a rapid and lasting recovery from the shipping and trade losses they had suffered during the , at the expense of the English.
Nevertheless, with the victory of the first Anglo-Dutch war and the successes in the war against Spain, England had done enough to establish itself as one of Europe's leading naval powers.
The war officially ended over two treaties signed at , both of which of were highly favourable to England. Firstly the
was received with great satisfaction by English statesmen and merchants in terms of trade. At the , Spain ceded Jamaica and the Caymen islands to Britain which was a major concession and a humiliation for Spain. English ships were also able to roam the Caribbean sea without hindrance and for the first time were not seen in the West Indies as intruders or as pirates.
served as part of the Spanish Army.
Marx, Robert F (1967). . World Publishing Company. p. 38.
Harding, Charles (1909). . Longmans, Green,. p. 48.
Richmond, Herbert William (1953). . University Press. p. 134.
Holberton p. 134
Manganiello p.481
Barratt pp. 187-88
Rommelse 2006, p. 21
"He advocated the capture of Hispaniola and Cuba as a first step, and after that, the conquest of Central America, which he considered would be completed in two years" (, p. 5).
"the newly acquired Caribbean island of Jamaica would later become one of the United Kingdom's most valuable possessions for more than 150 years" (, p. 202).
"Commerce was depressed because of the armed conflicts and the burden became too heavy to bear" (, p. 21).
"The main effect of the war was to disrupt what remained of English commerce" (, p. 12).
"About 1,000 English ships were lost as against some 400 captured by the English." (, p. 236)
Davenport & Paulin pp.98-99 & 188-89
Andrien and Kuethe pp. 50-52
Pestana p. 185
Fisher, Margaret A Savelle, Max (1967). . Macmillan. pp. 66–67.
Francis p. 663
Andrien, Kenneth J; Kuethe, Allan J (2014). . Cambridge University Press.
Barratt, John (2006). Cromwell's Wars at Sea. Barnsley.  .
Cooper, J. P. (1979). The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 4, The Decline of Spain and the Thirty Years War, . CUP Archive.  .
Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate. Manchester University Press.  .
Francis, John Michael (2006). . ABC-CLIO.  .
Firth, Charles (1909). The Last Years of the Protectorate, . 1. Longmans, G New York.
Gardiner, Frances Davenport (2007). European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648. Kessinger Publishing.  .
Holberton, Edward (2008). Poetry and the Cromwellian Protectorate: Culture, Politics, and Institutions. OUP Oxford.  .
Gardiner, Samuel Rawson (1901). History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate,
(1901). Longmans, Green.
Harding, Richard (1999). Seapower and naval warfare, . Naval Institute Press.
Hart, Francis Russel (1922). Admirals of the Caribbean. Boston.
Hutton, Ronald (2000). The British Republic , 2nd edition. Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke.
Manganiello, Stephen C (2004). The Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, . Scarecrow Press.  .
Nolan, Cathal J. (2008). Wars of the age of Louis XIV, : an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. ABC-CLIO.  .
Pestana, Carla Gardina (2017). . Harvard University Press.  .
Rodger, N.A.M. (2005). The Command of the Ocean. New York.  .
Rommelse, Gijs (2006). The Second Anglo-Dutch War (): raison d'état, mercantilism and maritime strife. Uitgeverij Verloren.  .
Taylor, Stanley Arthur Goodwin (1969). The Western design: an account of Cromwell's expedition to the Caribbean. Solstice Productions.  .
Fraser, Antonia (1909). Cromwell, Our Chief of Men. P New Ed edition.  .
Israel, Jonathan (1997). Conflicts of empires: Spain, the low countries and the struggle for world supremacy, . Continuum International Publishing Group.  .
Leathes, Stanley (1906). "Chapter XXI Mazarin". In Ward, Adolphus W. . , planned by Lord Acton. 4. Cambridge University Press.
Plant, David. . British Civil Wars, Commonwealth and Protectorate website 2011.
Plowden, Alison (2006). In a Free Republic. Sutton Publishing Ltd.  .
Maland, David (1991). Europe in the Seventeenth Century (Second ed.). Macmillan.  .
Staff (20 November 2006). . The Scotsman. Edinburgh.[]
: Hidden categories:西班牙困境加剧 银行业坏账率升至18年高位
* 西班牙银行业坏账率升至18年高位8.37%
* 西班牙周一将为银行任命独立的审计机构
* 高盛将负责对Bankia的评估--消息人士
路透马德里5月18日电---西班牙银行业3月坏账升至18年高位,突显该国政府所面临的问题.该国政府周一将向银行选派独立审计机构,以向投资者表明其能够清理银行业问题.
西班牙央行称,3月银行业坏账率升至8.37%,为1994年8月以来最高,2月略微上修後为8.3%.
西班牙周一将任命审计机构评估损失会有多严重,以及银行需要多少现金来增强资产负债表.
西班牙副首相Soraya Saenz de Santamaria表示,审计工作将首先进行一个月的压力测试,然後对金融领域资产进行更深入的分析.
金融业消息人士曾表示,或指定基金管理公司贝莱德和管理咨询机构Oliver Wyman负责深入审计工作.但一位政府消息人士表示,六家基金和管理咨询机构已经申请这项工作,还有一位政府消息人士称,贝莱德可能存在利益冲突.
在评级机构穆迪大范围下调西班牙银行业者评级的数小时之後,西班牙央行公布的数据显示,银行业在房地产泡沫时期发放的贷款导致的损失仍在增加.
不过市场对穆迪的举措已经有所预料,西班牙银行类股周五在经历了灰暗的一周之後反弹.已经被部分国有化的Bankia(BKIA.MC)跳涨四分之一,削减近期的跌幅.
银行业问题以及部分高负债地区超支成为西班牙公共财政面临的最大两项风险.投资者认为,如果要避免接受爱尔兰式的纾困,西班牙需要大刀阔斧地解决这两个问题.
随着经济收缩和失业率高企,银行业预计今年不良贷款将会继续增长.目前西班牙失业率接近25%,在欧盟中最高.
在此背景之下,分析师预计不良贷款率可能更加接近15%.
"挑战在於资产负债表上的不良贷款资产,及其变化趋势,"穆迪的常务董事managing director周五对路透表示."无论是单个银行还是整体银行业,关键在於摸清底细."
**借款成本**
更为紧迫的担忧是储户开始提取存款.一则关於Bankia银行存款下降逾10亿欧元(13亿美元)的消息引发其股价周四暴跌30%.後来西班牙政府否认存款大量外流.
在马德里的各条大街上,没有储户恐慌的迹象,但有些人警觉起来,和分行经理、朋友及亲戚讨论他们的担忧.
本周西班牙的借款成本触及欧元上路以来最高,促使政府要求欧洲提供更多的支援.
西班牙首相拉霍伊(Mariano Rajoy)将敦促欧洲央行扩大对欧元区的保护.
法国总统奥朗德(Francois Hollande)表示,西班牙的银行业应该要由欧洲的纾困基金来进行资本重组,而且要竭尽所能地把希腊留在欧元区内.
西班牙官员们表示,西班牙已进行改革工作,好让其经济更有竞争力.他们并称,欧洲央行买进债券是支持西班牙改革努力不可或缺的部分.
两名分别来自政府和金融界的消息人士表示,政府并聘请高盛(GS.N)对Bankia (BKIA.MC)进行独立评估.该行已於上周被政府收归国有.
报纸Expansion报导称,Bankia的资金缺口可能达80亿欧元(102亿美元),这不包括需要为不动产资产潜在损失提拨100亿欧元准备.Welcome to Oliver Peoples International
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