怎么写篇漂亮的research proposal，流传很广的写作指南。言简意赅，很实用~~
怎么写篇漂亮的research proposal，流传很广的写作指南。言简意赅，很实用~~
文章作者Paul T. P. Wong, Ph.D., C.Psych. (Research Director, Graduate Program in Counselling Psychology. Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada).
题为：How to Write a Research Proposal. 全文转载如下： 　　 　　Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal means, nor do they understand its importance. To put it bluntly, one’s research is only as a good as one’s proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project, but also impresses your Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher. 　　 　　A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study. 　　 　　Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it. 　　 　　The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound. 　　 　　The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling. 　　 　　This paper focuses on proposal writing rather than on the development of research ideas. 　　 　　Title: 　　 　　It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, “An investigation of . . .” could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader’s interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal. 　　 　　Abstract: 　　 　　It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used. 　　 　　Introduction: 　　 　　The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing. 　　 　　If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident. 　　
&　　Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas. 　 　　However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current “hot” area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify “key players” and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance. 　　 　　The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements: 　 　&& 1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study. 　　2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance. 　　3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. 　　4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research. 　　5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study. 　　6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.) 　　7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. 　　8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.) 　　 　　 　　Literature Review: 　　 　　Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature. 　　 　　The literature review serves several important functions: 　　 　　1. Ensures that you are not “reinventing the wheel”. 　　2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research. 　　3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem. 　　4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question. 　　5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information. 　　6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature. 　　7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research. 　　8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature). 　　 　　Most students’ literature reviews suffer from the following problems: 　　 　　* Lacking organization and structure 　　* Lacking focus, unity and coherence 　　* Being repetitive and verbose 　　* Failing to cite influential papers 　　* Failing to keep up with recent developments 　　* Failing to critically evaluate cited papers 　　* Citing irrelevant or trivial references 　　* Depending too much on secondary sources 　　 　　Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal. 　　 　　There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc. 　　 　　It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.) 　　 　　Methods: 　　 　　The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project. 　　 　　The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study. 　　 　　You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question. 　　 　　Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method. 　　 　　Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.) 　　 　　For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections: 　　 　　1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose? 　　2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use? 　　3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable? 　　4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take? 　　 　　Results: 　　 　　Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis. 　　 　　Discussion: 　　 　　It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area. 　　 　　Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing 　　 　　1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question. 　　2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research. 　　3. Failure to cite landmark studies. 　　4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers. 　　5. Failure to stay focused on the research question. 　　6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research. 　　7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues. 　　8. Too much rambling — going “all over the map” without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.) 　　9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references. 　　10. Too long or too short. 　　11. Failing to follow the APA style. 　　12. Slopping writing. 　　 　　下面是来自其他一些学术从业者关于如何写proposal的意见： 　　 　　 * Writing Research Proposals, Drew University On-line resources for writers. 　　 * Guide to Writing a Research Proposal, University of Technology, Sydney. (A research proposal is required for admission to the program.) 　　 * Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal, University of Calgary Centre for Advancement of Health. 　　 * The Art of Writing Proposals: Some Candid Suggestions for Applicants to Social Science Research Council Competitions, Adam Przeworski and Frank Salomon. 　　 * The Elements of a Proposal, Frank Pajares, Emory University. 　　 　　以及，关于如何写学位论文proposal的指导（Dissertation Proposal Writing and some strategies for completing the dissertation） 　　 　　 * Dissertation Proposal Workshop, Institute of International Studies, UC-Berkeley. 　　 * Writing and Presenting your Thesis or Dissertation , LearningAssociates.net. 　　 * Dissertation/Project Hints: Proposal Writing, Hazel Hall, School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK. 　　 * Writing Theses and Dissertations, Claremont Graduate University Writing Center.
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Research Essay写作步骤详解及优秀范文赏析
&&&&& Research Essay是国外大学常见的Assignment形式，Research Essay的概念看似简单，但实际上写作时的时候一点也不简单，很多留学生面对Research Essay的时候也是有心无力，半天才能憋出一段话。Research Essay是引导你走进别人的研究并相互交流想法的一种论文方式，Research Essay写作涉及到资料搜集而且还要整合你自己的观点，通常以需要被调研的话题或问题开篇。下面美伦教育就以Research essay写作顺序为这篇文章的写作思路，从开题、模板、行文、提交、构思、提问等方面着手一步步教述留学生们如何撰写一篇完整的、优秀的、格式准确无误的优秀Research Essay。下面是Research Essay写作的10个步骤，在文章的最后还为大家提供了优秀的Research Essay范文。
& & &&Step1：选择一个话题
& & & 谨慎选择一个你感兴趣的话题，这样你才有兴趣肯花时间去完成一篇Research Essay，这也是先决条件。
&&&&& Step2：选择一个理想的题目
& & &&理想的题目是你有所了解的话题。这纯粹是个人的看法与观点，文章围绕题目去写，不要偏题。
& & & Step3：选择essay的写作模板
& & &&一篇完整的essay至少需要三部分——引文、正文及结论。引文部分非常重要，它能决定essay的水平，因为它是essay的前部 分。读者正是通过引文部分来评判是否对essay感兴趣。此外，引文部分为你的essay打下行文基础，而你essay中的内容都应该以引文中所指示的为依据。
& & & Step4：构建essay正文
& & & 这部分应该详尽地论述你的话题。你应该在正文部分记下所有可用以支撑你的观点的论据。然而，仅仅记下并不足够；你需要详细、清晰地解释他们。每一个要点都必须不同，但同时必须与话题相关。每一个论据都要尽量使用真实有效事实存在在例子，这样能增加你论据的真实性。
& & &&Step5：提交论文
&&&&& 提交一篇一页的essay，并列出proposed essay的题目，简述essay的内容，并罗列出参考文献。论及目前你所遇到的任何问题。
& & & Step6：试想你的话题
& & &&一旦定好话题，你就需要运用你的智慧“试想”一下你的话题。你一定能够在脑海中想象你所论述的话题——撰写前必须先构思。这个话题是什么？你感兴趣吗？它有吸引力吗？你能构思出essay的确切部分吗？你脑海中有大致框架吗？这也就是写作思路，写作思路明确了，写作起来自然也就得心应手了。
& & & Step7：尽可能地多问自己问题
& & &&记下你认为有用的问题。尽可能使你的话题概念化，那么行文便容易多了。反复的审核自己的文章。
& & & Step8：设定现实的目标
& & &&你同时需要实事求是地看待你的话题。如果你对此话题只有较少的认识，那么你的首要任务一定是加深了解。
& & & Step9：着重点
& & & Research essay的正文应该是你的着重点。正文通常都因话题的不同方面被不同的标题分割。决定正文需要什么标题以及标题的放置顺序并不容易。你必须审视你的话题并问问自己，“我应该用哪方面的内容来回答我research的问题？”这或许意味着你需要用一个部分来深入描述论点，用一部分回答与你意见相悖的人的问题以及用一部分来证实你的论点。
& & &&Step10：结论
& & & 当你写结论的时候，总结一下你的research，这是你这篇research essay的结果，也是老师想要看到你究竟研究出了什么成果。
& & &&这里有一篇优秀的Research Essay范文，大家可以点击查看：
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