第一章磁性—建造一座高斯步枪磁直线加速器
第一章磁性—建造一座高斯步枪磁直线加速器
高斯步枪:A Magnetic Linear Accelerator一个磁性的直线加速器
This very simple toy uses a magnetic chain reaction to launch a steel marble at a target at high speed. 这很简单的玩具使用一个磁性的连锁反应发射一钢大理石目标在高速度。The toy is very simple to build, going together in minutes, and is very simple to understand and explain, and yet fascinating to watch and to use.玩具是很简单的建设,在一起了在分钟,很容易理解和解释,并且却又令人观察和使用。
Click on image for animated view点击图像动画的观点
The photo above shows six frames of video showing the gauss rifle in action. 上述照片显示六个帧的视频显示高斯步枪的实际行动。Each frame shows 1/30th of a second. 每个框显示1/30th一秒。In the first frame, a steel ball starts rolling towards a magnet taped to a wooden ruler. 在第一个框架、一个钢球滚动开始对磁铁贴在一个木制的统治者。In the second frame, a second ball can be seen speeding between the rightmost two magnets. 在第二个框架、一个第二个球可以看到之间的两块磁铁rightmost超速行驶。By the third frame, the accelerator has sped up so much that the ball that is seen leaving the left side of the device is just a blur as it smashes into the target. 在第三架、加速器有加快那么看见离开球装置的左边只是一种模糊,因为它攻击到目标。One ball, starting at rest, has caused another ball to leave the device at a very high speed.一个球,开始在休息,引起了另外的一个球离开装置在非常高的速度。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
The materials are simple. 这些材料是简单的。We need a wooden ruler that has a groove in the top in which a steel ball can roll easily. 我们需要一个木制的统治者,世界顶尖的槽内,一个钢球能滚动很容易。Any piece of wood or aluminum or brass with a groove will work. 任何一块木头或是铝或铜管与凹槽行不通。We chose the ruler because they are easy to find around the house or at school or at a local stationery store.统治者,我们的选择,因为它们容易找到在家里还是在学校或在当地一家文具店。
We need some sticky tape. 我们需要一些的粘性胶带。Again, almost any kind will do. 再次,几乎任何类型就行了。Here we use Scotch brand transparent tape, but vinyl electrical tape works just as well.在这里我们用威士忌品牌透明胶带,但乙烯基电工胶带运行就。
We need four magnets. 我们需要四个磁体。Most any type will do, but the stronger the magnets are, the faster the balls will go. 多数任意类型将做,但是越强,越快磁体的球去。Here we use the super strong gold-plated neodymium-iron-boron magnets we have made available in our在这里我们用超级强大的镀金neodymium-iron-boron磁铁我们已经取得了可在我们的健康有好处for the other projects. 对于其他的项目。They work great.他们很有用。
We will also need nine steel balls, with a diameter that is a close match to the height of the magnets. 我们也将需要九钢球,直径是一场势均力敌的比赛的磁体的高度。We use 5/8 inch diameter nickel plated steel balls from our我们用5 / 8英寸直径的镀镍钢球从我们的.
The only tool we will need is a sharp knife for trimming the tape.唯一的工具,我们需要是一把锋利的小刀削减录音。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
We start by taping the first magnet to the ruler at the 2.5 inch mark. 我们先拍的第一块磁铁统治者在2.5”的标志。The distance is somewhat arbitrary -- we wanted to get all four magnets on a one foot ruler. 距离是某些武断的——我们想要在一个磁铁四脚的统治者。Feel free to experiment with the spacing later.随时实验在间隔之后。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
With the sharp knife, trim off any excess tape. 用锋利的刀,修剪掉多余的带子。Be careful, since the knife will be strongly attracted to the magnet.小心,因为刀会受到强烈吸引到磁铁。
It is very important that you keep the magnets from jumping together. 很重要的是要保持从跳的磁体在一起。They are made of a brittle sintered material that shatters like a ceramic. 它们是用一种易碎的烧结材料,粉碎了像陶瓷。Tape the ruler to the table temporarily, so that it doesn't jump up to the next magnet as you tape the second magnet to the ruler.用胶布把统治者临时表,这样就不会跳接下来的永磁起你带第二磁铁给以色列中的王。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
Continue taping the magnets to the ruler, leaving 2.5 inches between the magnets.继续拍的磁铁给以色列中的王,留下的2.5英寸之间的磁体。
When all four magnets are taped to the ruler, it is time to load the gauss rifle with the balls.当所有的四个磁体贴在统治者,它是时间载入高斯步枪的球。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
To the right of each magnet, place two steel balls. 右边的每个磁铁、放置两钢球。Arrange a target to the right of the device, so the ball does not roll down the street and get lost.安排一个目标,以正确的设备,所以球没有卷街上迷路。
To fire the gauss rifle, set a steel ball in the groove to the left of the leftmost magnet. 点燃这些高斯步枪,设定一个钢球将处于最佳状态的左边最左边的那个磁铁。Let the ball go. 让球去。If it is close enough to the magnet, it will start rolling by itself, and hit the magnet.如果它是足够接近磁铁,它便会开始滚动,自行击中了磁铁。
Click on image for larger view点击图像对较大的观点
When the gauss rifle fires, it will happen too fast to see. 当高斯步枪火灾,这将发生太快要看的东西。The ball on the right will shoot away from the gun, and hit the target with considerable force. 球在右边要射离开枪,命中目标相当大的力量。Our one foot long version is designed so the speed is not enough to hurt someone, and you can use your hand or foot as a target.我们有一个英尺长的版本是设计是不够的速度伤害某人时,你可以用你的手、脚作为目标。
How does it do that?它如何做呢?
When you release the first ball, it is attracted to the first magnet. 当你释放出第一个球,这是吸引到第一个磁铁。It hits the magnet with a respectable amount of force, and a kinetic energy we will call "1 unit".它击中磁铁所施加的力,有一份体面的动能,我们会叫“1单位”。
The kinetic energy of the ball is transfered to the magnet, and then to the ball that is touching it on the right, and then to the ball that is touching that one. 动能转换球的那块磁铁,再到球体,它摸它在右边,再到球碰到那一个。This transfer of kinetic energy is familiar to billiards players -- when the cue ball hits another ball, the cue ball stops and the other ball speeds off.这桩转会高空动能是熟悉的球员的时候,台球母球撞到了另球,直击主球球心站和其他球的速度了。
The third ball is now moving with a kinetic energy of 1 unit. 第三球现在正与动能1股。But it is moving towards the second magnet. 但它正在向第二磁铁。It picks up speed as the second magnet pulls it closer. 它捡起速度为第二磁铁吸引它更近。When it hits the second magnet, it is moving nearly twice as fast as the first ball.当它击中第二磁铁、移动近两倍,第一个球。
The third ball hits the magnet, and the fifth ball starts to move with a kinetic energy of 2 units. 第三弹打磁铁,和第五届球开始移动,2个单元动能。It speeds up as it nears the third magnet, and hits with of 3 units of kinetic energy. 它加快速度,因为它靠近第三磁铁,支安打、3单位的动能。This causes the seventh ball to speed off towards the last magnet. 这导致7球,加速离开向最后的磁铁。As it gets drawn to the last magnet, it speeds up to 4 units of kinetic energy.当我逐渐磁铁吸引到最后时,它就加速到4单位的动能。
The kinetic energy is now transfered to the last ball, which speeds off at 4 units, to hit the target.现在动能转换过去的球,它的速度从4个单位,射中目标。
Another way of looking at the mechanism另一种方式的看着机制
When the device is all set up and ready to be triggered, we can see that there are four balls that are touching their magnets. 在设备被设置好准备被触发的,我们可以看到这儿有四个球,触摸他们的磁体。These balls are at what physicists call the "ground state". 这些球都是在什么物理学家所谓的“地面的国家”。It takes energy to move them away from the magnets.它需要能量运转他们离开的磁铁。
But each of these balls has another ball touching it. 但是这每个球有另一个球触摸它。These second balls are not at the ground state. 这些第二落点的地面也不在状态。They are each 5/8ths of an inch from a magnet. 他们每个人的5/8ths一英寸一块磁铁。They are easier to move than the balls that are touching the magnet.更易移动的触球的不同的磁铁。
If we were to take a ball that was touching a magnet, and pull it away from the magnet until it was 5/8ths of an inch away, we would be adding energy to the ball. 假如我们以一个球体,是令人感动的一块磁铁、和拉它离磁铁,直到它5/8ths英寸走了后,我们将会增加能量去舞会的事。The ball would be pulling towards the magnet with some considerable force. 球将会对磁铁与相当大的力量。We could get the energy back by letting the ball go.我们可以得到能量回让球去。
After the gauss rifle has fired, the situation is different. 高斯后步枪发射了,情况就完全不同了。Now each of the balls is touching a magnet. 现在每一个球是动人的一块磁铁。There is one ball on each side of each magnet. 有一个球的每一边每个磁铁。Each ball is in its ground state, and has given up the energy that was stored by being 5/8ths of an inch from a magnet. 每个球在其地面状态,已放弃储存的能量被5/8ths一英寸的一块磁铁。That energy has gone into the last ball, which uses it to destroy the target.能源已进入最后一个球,利用它来毁掉目标。
Speed and kinetic energy速度和动能
The kinetic energy of an object is defined as half its mass times the square of its velocity. 一个物体的动能一半的定义是质量乘以广场的速度。As each magnet pulls on a ball, it adds kinetic energy to the ball linearly.当每个磁铁吸引在球上,球的动能线性的。
But the speed does not add up linearly. 但快速并不把线性的。If we have 4 magnets, the kinetic energy is 4, but the speed goes up as the square root of the kinetic energy. 如果我们有4磁石的著磁,动能4,运行速度的上升的平方根动能。As we add more magnets, the speed goes up by a smaller amount each time. 当我们添加更多的磁石的著磁,速度上升,少得多,每次。But the distance the ball will roll, and the damage it causes to what it hits, is a function of the kinetic energy, and thus a function of how many magnets we use.但距离的球将书卷,所造成的危害后果给它支安打,是一个函数的动能,因此多少磁铁的功能,我们使用。
We can keep scaling up the gun until the kinetic energy gets so high that the last magnet is shattered by the impact. 我们可以把同比增长的枪,直到动能变得这么高,最后磁铁都被摧毁的影响。After that, adding more magnets will not do much good.在那之后,增加更多的磁铁将不做多好啊。
Why a circular track will not be a perpetual motion device为什么一个圆形的铁路将不是一个永恒的运动设备
I have been getting a lot of mail asking what would happen if we made the track circular. 我已经有很多邮件问什么是要知道如果我们做出了轨道圆。Would we get free energy? 我们能获得免费的能量的呢?Would the balls keep accelerating forever?将球保持加速到永远吗?
I have been tempted to reply with the famous quote: "There are two kinds of people in the world -- those who understand the second law of thermodynamics, and those who don't".我一直想回复,与著名的引用到:“有两种世界上的人——那些懂得热力学第二定律,另一种则不懂”。
However, I am not the kind of person to leave an inquiring mind unsatisfied, and it is more productive (and kind) to explain in a little more depth what is going on.然而,我不是那种离开的人追根究底的精神不满,而且更产量和亲切的)解释在一个多深度是怎么回事。
Suppose you made a circular track, and put two balls after each magnet. 假设你犯了一个循环的轨道上,而把两球之后,每个磁铁。When the last ball is released, it encounters a magnet that has two balls at the ground state. 当最后一个球被发布,它遇到一个一块磁铁,有两个球于地面的状态。There is no energy to be had from this magnet. 没有能从这磁铁。The ball just bounces back.球正好能重新振作起来。
Now suppose you had placed three balls after each magnet. 现在,假设你有放三球之后,每个磁铁。When the last ball is released, it hits a ball that is 5/8ths inch from the magnet. 当最后一个球是释放,它击中一个球体,它5/8ths英寸磁铁。It has not gained much momentum, because most of the momentum gained is in the last half inch as the magnet pulls much stronger on things that are closer. 它没有赢得了动量,由于多数的动力源自处在最后半英寸的磁铁吸引更近的东西上。But the ball has enough energy from previous accelerations to release the next ball. 但是球从先前有足够的能量释放加速度下个球。However, that ball has less energy than the ball that caused it to release. 然而,那球比球较少的能量就会导致它的释放。It may have enough energy to release another ball or two, but each ball that is released has less energy than before, and eventually the chain stops.它可能有足够的精力去释放另一球或两个,但是每个球有更少的释放的能量比以前,并最终链条停止。
You can show by inductive logic that no matter how many balls you stack in front of each magnet, eventually the system stops.你可以指由无论如何归纳逻辑你洗牌多球门前都用不同的磁铁,最后系统停止。
To estimate the losses due to heating the balls as they compress when hit, consider a plastic tube standing upright on a table. 估计加热造成他们球压缩击中,考虑塑胶管站立在一张桌子。Place one steel ball at the bottom of the tube. 将一个钢球,在底部的管。Now drop another ball into the tube, so it hits the ball at the bottom, and bounces back up.现在舍弃另一球打入管,所以它把球打在底部,能重新振作起来。
Now measure how high the ball bounced. 现在测量球跳多高。If it bounces halfway back up, the losses are 50%. 如果它反弹中途备份,损失50%。Perform the experiment for yourself with the balls from the Gauss Rifle. 做试验,你用把球从高斯步枪。How high does your ball bounce? 你的球是多高蹦蹦跳跳呢?Send me mail with your results.给我寄信件与你的结果。
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永磁同步直线电动机位置伺服系统矢量控制
采用矢量控制方法构建永磁同步直线电动机位置伺服系统,并利用SVPWM技术中对两种不同空间矢量合成,进行PWM波的谐波分析.给出了磁场定向矢量控制的软件实现思路,介绍了以IR2130为驱动芯片的驱动电路硬件原理.实验结果表明,该直线电动机位置伺服系统控制效果良好.
ZHAI Xiao-fei
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ZHAO Jing-hong
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海军工程大学电气与信息工程学院,武汉,430033
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非常感谢题主的问题，让我有机会好好想一想。基础知识很渣，只能在应用物理的层面简单说说吧，说明中遇到的我不懂的地方就标出来：先来一个wiki词条，简单明了，其实不用我再废话了。电磁波/物质波 跟物质的作用可以分为两类，弹性elastic和非弹性inelastic。讨论波跟物质的相互作用，其实把波看成粒子最容易理解，也就转化为粒子跟粒子的碰撞。而多个光子有三个物理性质，能量，动量，和偏振。弹性碰撞，入射粒子能量不变，方向改变 -- 弹性散射。作为波，就是波长不变，方向改变，表现为不相干散射，和相干散射——衍射，如果是界面，则为折射，反射。非弹性碰撞，入射粒子能量改变，比如能量被物质吸收。作为光子，一是光子消失，光子数减少；二是一个光子被吸收，然后另一个能量不同的光子因此被射出，比如拉曼散射；三是，光子跟自由电子碰撞，能量改变，这是康普顿散射。（关于偏振状态，我接触到的只有偏振吸收光谱，不知道有没有只改变偏振不改变能量的情况。对于电子，自旋改变，电子的能量也改变，不知光改变自旋会不会改变能量，请高手指导。【1】）穿透力，如果理解为光子穿过物质后既没改变能量也没改变方向，那么就要把参与弹性碰撞和非弹性碰撞的光子数都去掉，看最终没经过任何作用的光子数。也就是说衍射（如果有的话）降低穿透力。由于X光是电磁波，物质对它的散射主要来自于电子，散射截面正比于物质电子密度。对于电子多的元素，比如钙就比碳更容易(概率上)散射X光 ()。对于吸收，吸收率不仅跟波长有关，还跟相互作用的物质有关。简单地说就是，分子转动能级之间跃迁吸收的光大概是微波，原子建震动能跃迁级吸收红外光，原子外壳层能级跃迁吸收可见光，原子内壳层能级跃迁吸收x光-紫外光，内壳层电离吸收硬X光。（当然实际情况并没有这么简单）医学X-ray imaging 主要利用元素对x光不同的吸收率
. 由于不同物质对X光的吸收率不同，可以把感兴趣的物质从背景中分辨出来。（注意，由于是电离辐射，电离产生的自由电子对身体会有危害。）利用吸收率不同还有几个有趣的技术， 比如X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD)和X-ray magnetic linear dichroism (XMLD) spectroscopy 是利用不同的自旋和磁量子数的原子对偏振光的不同吸收率来研究材料。当然分辨能力不光可以利用不同吸收率，还可以利用不同的散射率，比如 phase contract X-ray imaging, 还有 x-ray/neutron scattering也要用到X光和中子的不同散射率。同时利用吸收和散射的技术：anomalous x ray diffraction.-----【1】是拿不准的地方，欢迎指导。
擦，看了上面的回复我真是...穿透能力取决于物质对电磁波的吸收能力，如果定义一个吸收系数的话，电磁场能量在物质内部依照吸收系数指数衰减。物质对特定波长电磁波吸收系数的大小可以差别很大，太多物理过程可能导致物质对电磁波的吸收，可以是晶格振动，可以是电子跃迁，可以是电离，甚至更高能的吸收，这主要取决于电磁波的波长，所以理论性的考虑物质对电磁波的吸收很繁琐，经验的可以表示为物质的介电函数，这个东西可以测。你说的穿透能力和衍射没有半毛钱关系，X射线看到人体骨骼结构就是因为皮肤、器官和骨骼对X射线的吸收能力不同，所以穿透以后可以形成衬度而成像，就像阳光穿不透你的寂寞而形成影子一样。
粗略谈谈我的理解。1、穿透力一般应该理解为透射率，透射率与吸收率是互补的，二者之和应为1。也就是说，电磁波入射到某种材料上的透射率高，是因为这种材料对此波段的电磁波吸收率小。决定吸收率大小的是组成这种物质的原子或分子本身存在的能级差。能级包括原子的外层电子能级、内层电子能级，分子的振动、转动能级等，本质是由原子分子的各种运动产生的能量值。电磁波频率（与波长成反比）如果正好对应某个能级差值（能量普朗克常数频率），就会与物质内部的原子分子能相互作用（从经典力学的角度看这就是共振），电磁波的能量传递给原子分子从而使它们获得能量发生能级跃迁（获得更高的能量值），也就是说电磁波被物质吸收了。不同物质的原子分子内部同一类运动状态的能级值分布不一样，而同一种原子分子的不同类型运动状态的能级值更是差别很大。因此，不同物质对各种波段电磁波的吸收率是不一样的，同一种物质对电磁波的吸收情况也就形成它独有的光谱带。“波长越短穿透力越强”没错，这里的穿透力大概是指电磁波对物质的损伤力，因为波长短频率就高，当频率很高达到与原子分子的电离能在一个量级（电离能即外层电子完全脱离原子核的束缚形成自由电子所需要的能量）就会使物质电离以致破坏其化学键，这样就损害了机体的正常功能。高能射线对人体的伤害也正是这个原因。PS：以上所述就是
所提到的“非弹性散射”中光子数减少的情形，也是最普遍情形。他提到的拉曼散射和康普顿散射并不具普遍性：拉曼散射中拉曼信号十分微弱；康普顿散射研究的只是高能光子与“自由电子”这一种物质的相互作用。2、至于衍射，则考虑的是电磁波入射到某种结构，而不是构建这种结构的物质本身的情形，也就是说衍射并不考虑波与原子分子的相互作用。楼上有人说波长越大越容易发生衍射不能等同于波长越大穿透力越强：首先，衍射不是透过障碍物，衍射是障碍物构成的结构对波动场相位分布施加影响的结果；其次，衍射的明显程度取决于结构尺度与波长的相对大小，波长越大越容易与我们周围的宏观结构发生衍射，比如水波声波的衍射、光学中的光栅衍射、圆孔衍射等等，所以波长越大越容易肉眼观察到衍射，而不是波长越大越容易衍射。事实上，波长很小的电磁波在比它尺度更小或差不多的结构上也一样容易发生衍射，比如材料科学中常用的X射线衍射来探测晶体结构。所以从以上角度来说，衍射能力与穿透力本质上不是一码事。但是
的观点也不是没有道理，他是从“光子的弹性与非弹性碰撞”的角度看电磁波与物质的相互作用。3、X光成像就是运用X射线波段的电磁波对骨质和机体其他组织的透射率不同，在底片上感光程度不一样的原理。
根据我对高中物理依稀的记忆。。。波长越短，能量越大，穿透能里越强。。。所谓的穿透能力个人认为可以通过同功率的电磁波经过同样厚度的障碍物损耗百分比的不同来体现吧？衍射是与电磁波波长有关系的，从一定意义上来说也就是和穿透力有关系，具体关系忘了，不搞物理好多年。。。X光照射人体就是投影吧，只不过骨头会产生阴影，血肉、皮肤会被穿透罢了，简单的说就是玻璃窗上有窗花，阳光照射玻璃窗，地上的影子和X光照射人体的图片类似了。。。再次建议楼主专心查查物理书，国内的基础教育还是很全面的。
穿透深度是和材料有关系的。材料的介电常数是一个复数。电磁波传播的波矢k，根据麦克斯韦方程组，可以得到，其中是电磁波的圆频率，和分别是材料的介电常数和磁导率。由于是复数，所以k也会是一个复数，写成，材料的穿透深度就是.至于更近一步的为啥，如果你大学里学过一点电磁学的话，就会知道电磁波可以写成这样的波动方程：。如果k有虚部的话，整个e指数就可以提出一个e的负指数作为整个式子的衰减系数。如：随着r的增加（即电磁波的传播）这个衰减系数就会调制整个电磁波衰减。当然了，你提到的和波长的关系，其实在这里也是可以看出来的，因为是和波长有关的，越大，波长越小，也越大。所以一般来说，波长小的穿透的深度会比较短。衰减掉的电磁波以热的形式耗散了。X射线的原理么，我认为是这样的，肌肉和骨骼的材料是不一样的，X射线的波长短，所以在肌肉组织中的穿透深度就比较短。而骨骼则不然。所以在感光的乳胶上，骨骼部分的投影会被清晰地投影出来。至于衍射和穿透力的关系……吾觉得毫无关系啊。也许你是想问X射线晶格衍射相关的东西。可是这和“穿透力”关系不是很大呀。嘻嘻
波长短，能量大，穿透力强。好多军用的都是短波。具体可以看《上帝掷骰子吗》的第一章
仅仅是穿透的话 应该是波长越短 穿透力越强尤其电离辐射 穿透力都是较强的 伤害性也大
而无线电波 微波 红外 可见光什么的就差得远了...
1波长越长，穿透力越大。短波无线电通信能传很远，红外光能跨越表皮传入基体。紫外线随便一张纸就挡住了。别说激光穿蚀和X射线，与此原理都不一样2波长越长，越容易绕过大的障碍物发生衍射。3X射线透视和CT都是X光打在电子密度大的重原子上。造影剂包括金，碘等任何原子序数大的原子。在密度高的器官，如骨骼上，X射线透射率低。所以可以做到透视，探伤，测量骨密度等功能。
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