Free Fatty Acids : Butter
Milk fat is comprised mostly of triglycerides, with small amounts of mono- and diglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipo-proteins. The trigylcerides (98% of milkfat) are of diverse composition with respect to their component fatty acids, approximately 40% of which are unsaturated fat firmness varies with chain length, degree of unsaturation, and position of the fatty acids on the glycerol. This is a typical breakdown of fatty acids in butter:
Flavorful fatty acids play an important role in the flavor of butter and are present at varied concentrations. Although long-chain fatty acids are present at higher concentrations in butter, they do not make a significant contribution to flavor. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), on the other hand, do play an important role in butter's flavor.
Typically, SCFA are found in the serum portion of butter (aqueous solution of all non-fat components) where their flavor potential is stronger. They occur below their Flavor Threshold Value (FTV): the minimum concentration level below which aroma or taste is imperceptible. Despite low concentrations, SCFA react in a synergistic and additive manner to provide characteristic flavors found in butter. Butyric acid is the most widely known and most potent SCFA and is attributed to providing intensity to fatty acid-type flavors associated with butter. Butter also contains a variety of fatty acid precursors of 4-cis-heptenal, a compound which provides butter with a creamy flavor.
It is a curious feature of fats that once melted, they have to be cooled to well below their melting point to resolidify them. Butter, for example, melts at about 35 &C (96 &F) but has to be cooled to about 23 &C (73 &F) to solidify it.
Milkfat from cows fed diets higher in stearic acid produced softer butter than milkfat from cows fed diets higher in palmitic acid. The change in butter softness was associated with changes in fatty acid and triglyceride structure of the milkfat.
Butyric acid
Butyric acid, also called butanoic acid (CH 3CH 2CH 2CO 2H), is &a fatty acid occurring in the form of esters in animal fats and plant oils. As a glyceride, it makes up 3–4 the disagreeable odour of rancid butter is that of butyric acid resulting from hydrolysis of the glyceride. The acid is of considerable commercial importance as a raw material in the manufacture of esters of lower alcohols for use
its anhydride is used to make cellulose acetatebutyrate, a useful plastic.
Butyric acid can be artificially manufactured by aerial oxidation of butyraldehyde. It is a colourless liquid, soluble in water and miscible with com it freezes at -4.26& C (24.33& F) and boils at 163.53& C (326.35& F). An isomer, isobutyric acid (CH 3)2CHCO 2H, or 2-methylpropanoic acid, is found both in the free state and as its ethyl ester in a few plant oils. It is commercially less important than butyric acid. It is generally sim it freezes at -46.1& C (-51& F) and boils at 153.2& C (307.8& F).
Linoleic Acid
Linoleic Acid is the principle fatty acid in many vegetable oils, including cottonseed oil, soybean oil, and corn oil. It is also abundant in rapeseed oil (from members of the mustard family, Brassicaceae) and is used in the manufacture of margarines, shortening, and salad and cooking oils.
Triglycerides built from linoleic acid are oils because of the double bonds in their chains of carbon atoms. Since margarine and shortening manufacturers want a soft solid, they bubble hydrogen through the oil in the presence of a nickel catalyst. This hydrogenation process brings about several changes, including the partial saturation of the carbon chains as hydrogen atoms attach to carbon atoms that were originally joined by double bonds. The replacement of carbon-carbon double bonds with single bonds allows the carbon chains to become flexible. As a result, the molecules can pack together more closely and the oil is converted to a fat. The hydrogenation process is stopped sooner if the oils are destined to become softer (tub) margarines.
The elmination of the double bonds during the hydrogenation also reduces the likelihood of attack by oxygen, so that the fat remains fresh longer. Nasty-smelling molecules are removed by passing superheated steam through the molten fat. This also rmoves the molecules responsible for color, so carotenes of various kinds are added to restore a butterlike appearance. The odor of butter is simulated by adding butanedione. The flavor is enhanced and sharpened by emulsifying the fats with skimmed milk that has been cultured with bacteria that produce lactic acid. The nutritional value is improved by the addition of vitamins A and D. And finally, natural surfactant molecules (lecithins, which are triglyceride like substances with one side chain containing a phosphatelike group) are added to ensure that the entire conccoction hangs together.Free Fatty Acid Value
free fatty acid value 1,508
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Send Inquiry NowProtein knowledgebaseSequence archiveHelp pages, FAQs, UniProtKB manual, documents, news archive and Biocuration projects.Sequence clustersProtein sets from fully sequenced genomesAnnotation systemsSystems used to automatically annotate proteins with high accuracy:Supporting dataSelect one of the options below to target your search:You are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website. Please consider upgrading . Free fatty acid receptor 2FFAR2Homo sapiens (Human)-Annotation score: Annotation score: 5 out of 5-Experimental evidence at protein leveliFunctioniG protein-coupled receptor that is activated by a major product of dietary fiber digestion, the short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and that plays a role in the regulation of whole-body energy homeostasis and in intestinal immunity. In omnivorous mammals, the short chain fatty acids acetate, propionate and butyrate are produced primarily by the gut microbiome that metabolizes dietary fibers. SCFAs serve as a source of energy but also act as signaling molecules. That G protein-coupled receptor is probably coupled to the pertussis toxin-sensitive, G(i/o)-alpha family of G proteins but also to the Gq family (PubMed:, PubMed:, PubMed:). Its activation results in the formation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, the mobilization of intracellular calcium, the phosphorylation of the MAPK3/ERK1 and MAPK1/ERK2 kinases and the inhibition of intracellular cAMP accumulation. May play a role in glucose homeostasis by regulating the secretion of GLP-1, in response to short-chain fatty acids accumulating in the intestine. May also regulate the production of LEP/Leptin, a hormone acting on the central nervous system to inhibit food intake. Finally, may also regulate whole-body energy homeostasis through adipogenesis regulating both differentiation and lipid storage of adipocytes. In parallel to its role in energy homeostasis, may also mediate the activation of the inflammatory and immune responses by SCFA in the intestine, regulating the rapid production of chemokines and cytokines. May also play a role in the resolution of the inflammatory response and control chemotaxis in neutrophils. In addition to SCFAs, may also be activated by the extracellular lectin FCN1 in a process leading to activation of monocytes and inducing the secretion of interleukin-8/IL-8 in response to the presence of microbes (PubMed:). Among SCFAs, the fatty acids containing less than 6 carbons, the most potent activators are probably acetate, propionate and butyrate (PubMed:, PubMed:). Exhibits a SCFA-independent constitutive G protein-coupled receptor activity (PubMed:).Manual assertion based on experiment ini"Identification of a free fatty acid receptor, FFA2R, expressed on leukocytes and activated by short-chain fatty acids.", , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, TISSUE SPECIFICITY."The orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids.", , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, TISSUE SPECIFICITY."Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation.", , , , , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION."Conserved polar residues in transmembrane domains V, VI, and VII of free fatty acid receptor 2 and free fatty acid receptor 3 are required for the binding and function of short chain fatty acids.", , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, SUBCELLULAR LOCATION, MUTAGENESIS OF HIS-140; ARG-180; HIS-242 AND ARG-255."Secreted M-ficolin anchors onto monocyte transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor 43 and cross talks with plasma C-reactive protein to mediate immune signaling and regulate host defense.", , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, INTERACTION WITH FCN1."Extracellular ionic locks determine variation in constitutive activity and ligand potency between species orthologs of the free fatty acid receptors FFA2 and FFA3.", , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: MUTAGENESIS OF GLY-159."Defining the molecular basis for the first potent and selective orthosteric agonists of the FFA2 free fatty acid receptor.", , , , , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, MUTAGENESIS OF TYR-90; HIS-140; GLN-148; TYR-165; ARG-180; TYR-238; HIS-242 AND ARG-255.GO - Molecular functioniInferred from direct assayiGO - Biological processiInferred from mutant phenotypeiInferred from direct assayiInferred from direct assayiInferred from mutant phenotypeiKeywordsiMolecular function, , Biological process, LigandEnzyme and pathway databasesReactomei G alpha (q) signalling events.
Free fatty acid receptors. Chemistry databasesSwissLipidsi Names & TaxonomyiProtein namesiRecommended name:Free fatty acid receptor 2Alternative name(s):G-protein coupled receptor 43Gene namesiName:Synonyms:FFA2, GPCR43, GPR43OrganismiTaxonomic identifieri
[]Taxonomic lineagei >
Proteomesi Componenti: Chromosome 19 Organism-specific databasesHGNCi FFAR2. Subcellular locationi Manual assertion based on experiment ini"Conserved polar residues in transmembrane domains V, VI, and VII of free fatty acid receptor 2 and free fatty acid receptor 3 are required for the binding and function of short chain fatty acids.", , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, SUBCELLULAR LOCATION, MUTAGENESIS OF HIS-140; ARG-180; HIS-242 AND ARG-255.;
Manual assertion based on experiment ini"Conserved polar residues in transmembrane domains V, VI, and VII of free fatty acid receptor 2 and free fatty acid receptor 3 are required for the binding and function of short chain fatty acids.", , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, SUBCELLULAR LOCATION, MUTAGENESIS OF HIS-140; ARG-180; HIS-242 AND ARG-255.TopologyFeature keyPosition(s)DescriptionActionsGraphical viewLengthTopological domainiExtracellular 12TransmembraneiH Name=1 21Topological domainiCytoplasmic8TransmembraneiH Name=2 21Topological domainiExtracellular 22TransmembraneiH Name=3 21Topological domainiCytoplasmic 21TransmembraneiH Name=4 21Topological domainiExtracellular 26TransmembraneiH Name=5 21Topological domainiCytoplasmic 25TransmembraneiH Name=6 21Topological domainiExtracellular 15TransmembraneiH Name=7 21Topological domainiCytoplasmic 54GO - Cellular componentiTraceable author statementiInferred from direct assayiKeywords - Cellular componenti, Pathology & BiotechiMutagenesisOrganism-specific databasesDisGeNETi OpenTargetsi PharmGKBi Chemistry databasesChEMBLi GuidetoPHARMACOLOGYi Polymorphism and mutation databasesBioMutai PTM / ProcessingiMolecule processingFeature keyPosition(s)DescriptionActionsGraphical viewLengthChainiPRO_Free fatty acid receptor 2 330Amino acid modificationsFeature keyPosition(s)DescriptionActionsGraphical viewLengthGlycosylationiN-linked (GlcNAc...)1GlycosylationiN-linked (GlcNAc...)1Keywords - PTMiProteomic databasesPaxDbi PeptideAtlasi PRIDEi PTM databasesiPTMneti PhosphoSitePlusi ExpressioniTissue specificityiExpressed at relatively high levels in peripheral blood leukocytes and, to lesser extent, in spleen.Manual assertion based on experiment ini"Identification of a free fatty acid receptor, FFA2R, expressed on leukocytes and activated by short-chain fatty acids.", , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, TISSUE SPECIFICITY."The orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids.", , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, TISSUE SPECIFICITY.Gene expression databasesBgeei CleanExi ExpressionAtlasi baseline and differential. Genevisiblei HS. Organism-specific databasesHPAi InteractioniSubunit structureiInteracts with FCN1 (via Fibrinogen C-terminal domain).Manual assertion based on experiment ini"Secreted M-ficolin anchors onto monocyte transmembrane G protein-coupled receptor 43 and cross talks with plasma C-reactive protein to mediate immune signaling and regulate host defense.", , , , , , , ,
[] [] []Cited for: FUNCTION, INTERACTION WITH FCN1.Protein-protein interaction databasesBioGridi 2 interactors.IntActi 3 interactors.STRINGi Chemistry databasesBindingDBi Structurei3D structure databasesProteinModelPortali ModBaseiMobiDBiFamily & DomainsiSequence similaritiesiBelongs to the .Manual assertion according to rulesiKeywords - Domaini, Phylogenomic databaseseggNOGi Eukaryota.
LUCA. GeneTreei HOGENOMi HOVERGENi InParanoidi KOi OMAi OrthoDBi PhylomeDBi TreeFami Family and domain databasesInterProi GPCR_Rhodpsn.
GPCR_Rhodpsn_7TM.
GPR40-rel_orph. Pfami 7tm_1. 1 hit. PRINTSi GPCRRHODOPSN.
GPR40FAMILY. PROSITEi G_PROTEIN_RECEP_F1_1. 1 hit.
G_PROTEIN_RECEP_F1_2. 1 hit. SequenceiSequence statusi: Complete.O15552-1 []
50MLPDWKSSLI LMAYIIIFLT GLPANLLALR AFVGRIRQPQ PAPVHILLLS
100LTLADLLLLL LLPFKIIEAA SNFRWYLPKV VCALTSFGFY SSIYCSTWLL
150AGISIERYLG VAFPVQYKLS RRPLYGVIAA LVAWVMSFGH CTIVIIVQYL
200NTTEQVRSGN EITCYENFTD NQLDVVLPVR LELCLVLFFI PMAVTIFCYW
250RFVWIMLSQP LVGAQRRRRA VGLAVVTLLN FLVCFGPYNV SHLVGYHQRK
300SPWWRSIAVV FSSLNASLDP LLFYFSSSVV RRAFGRGLQV LRNQGSSLLG
330RRGKDTAEGT NEDRGVGQGE GMPSSDFTTE
33037,144January 1, 1998 - v1Checksum:iF4A8AC6AFBDF1E90BLASTProtParamProtScaleCompute pI/MWPeptideMassPeptideCutterExperimental InfoFeature keyPosition(s)DescriptionActionsGraphical viewLengthSequence conflictiT → M in
(PubMed:).1Natural variantFeature keyPosition(s)DescriptionActionsGraphical viewLengthNatural variantiVAR_011861. Corresponds to variant .1Sequence databasesSelect the link destinations:EMBLiGenBankiDDBJi Genomic DNA. Translation: . Genomic DNA. Translation: . Genomic DNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: .CCDSi PIRi RefSeqi
UniGenei Genome annotation databasesEnsembli; ; . ; ; . GeneIDi KEGGi UCSCi human. Keywords - Coding sequence diversityiCross-referencesiSequence databasesSelect the link destinations:EMBLiGenBankiDDBJi Genomic DNA. Translation: . Genomic DNA. Translation: . Genomic DNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: . mRNA. Translation: .CCDSi PIRi RefSeqi
UniGenei 3D structure databasesProteinModelPortali ModBaseiMobiDBiProtein-protein interaction databasesBioGridi 2 interactors.IntActi 3 interactors.STRINGi Chemistry databasesBindingDBi ChEMBLi GuidetoPHARMACOLOGYi SwissLipidsi Protein family/group databasesGPCRDBiPTM databasesiPTMneti PhosphoSitePlusi Polymorphism and mutation databasesBioMutai Proteomic databasesPaxDbi PeptideAtlasi PRIDEi Protocols and materials databasesDNASUi Structural Biology KnowledgebaseGenome annotation databasesEnsembli; ; . ; ; . GeneIDi KEGGi UCSCi human. Organism-specific databasesCTDi DisGeNETi GeneCardsi H-InvDB HGNCi FFAR2. HPAi MIMi gene. neXtProti OpenTargetsi PharmGKBi GenAtlasiPhylogenomic databaseseggNOGi Eukaryota.
LUCA. GeneTreei HOGENOMi HOVERGENi InParanoidi KOi OMAi OrthoDBi PhylomeDBi TreeFami Enzyme and pathway databasesReactomei G alpha (q) signalling events.
Free fatty acid receptors. Miscellaneous databasesGenomeRNAii PROi SOURCEiGene expression databasesBgeei CleanExi ExpressionAtlasi baseline and differential. Genevisiblei HS. Family and domain databasesInterProi GPCR_Rhodpsn.
GPCR_Rhodpsn_7TM.
GPR40-rel_orph. Pfami 7tm_1. 1 hit. PRINTSi GPCRRHODOPSN.
GPR40FAMILY. PROSITEi G_PROTEIN_RECEP_F1_1. 1 hit.
G_PROTEIN_RECEP_F1_2. 1 hit. ProtoNeti Q4VBL5Entry historyiIntegrated into UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot: July 15, 1998Last sequence update: January 1, 1998Last modified: February 15, 2017This is version 134 of the entry and version 1 of the sequence. Entry statusiReviewed (UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot)Annotation programDisclaimerAny medical or genetic information present in this entry is provided for research, educational and informational purposes only. It is not in any way intended to be used as a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, treatment or care.MiscellaneousiKeywords - Technical termi, Documents
List of 7-transmembrane G-linked receptor entries
Human chromosome 19: entries, gene names and cross-references to MIM
List of human entries with polymorphisms or disease mutations
Index of human polymorphisms and disease mutations
Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (MIM) cross-references in UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot
Index of protein domains and families
Similar proteinsiLinks to similar proteins from the UniProt Reference Clusters (UniRef) at 100%, 90% and 50% sequence identity:UniRef100 combines identical sequences and sub-fragments with 11 or more residues from any organism into one UniRef entry.UniRef90 is built by clustering UniRef100 sequences that have at least 90% sequence identity to, and 80% overlap with, the longest sequence (a.k.a seed sequence).UniRef50 is built by clustering UniRef90 seed sequences that have at least 50% sequence identity to, and 80% overlap with, the longest sequence in the cluster.