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Terminology
Allotropes
Some elements exist in several different structural
forms, these are called allotropes.
For more information on Murray Robertson’s image see Uses and properties facts below.
Fact box terminology
Elements appear in columns or ‘groups’ in the periodic table. Members of a group
typically have similar properties and electron configurations in their outer
Elements are laid out into rows or ‘periods’ so that similar chemical behaviour is
observed in columns.
Elements are organised into blocks by the orbital type in which the outer electrons are
found. These blocks are named for the characteristic spectra they produce:
sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus.
Atomic Radius/non -bonded (&A)
based on Van der Waals forces (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented for
the most prevalent isotope). These values were calculated using a multitude of
methods including crystallographic data, gas kinetic collision cross sections,
critical densities, liquid state properties, for more details please refer to
the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
Electron Configuration
The arrangements of electrons above the last (closed
shell) noble gas.
Elements are defined by the number of protons in its
centre (nucleus), whilst the number of neutrons present can vary. The
variations in the number of neutrons will create elements of different mass
which are known as isotopes.
Melting Point (oC)
The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.
Melting Point (K)
The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.
Melting Point (oF)
The temperature at which the solid-liquid phase
change occurs.
Boiling Point (oC)
The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
Boiling Point (K)
The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
Boiling Point (oF)
The temperature at which the liquid-gas phase change
Sublimation
Elements that do not possess a liquid phase at atmospheric pressure (1 atm) are described
as going through a sublimation process.
Density (g cm-3)
Density is the mass of a substance that would fill
1 cm3 at room temperature.
Relative Atomic Mass
The mass of an atom relative to that of Carbon-12.
This is approximately the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. Where more than one isotope exists the value given is the abundance
weighted average.
Key Isotopes (% abundance)
An element must by definition have a fixed number of protons in its nucleus, and
as such has a fixed atomic number, however variants of an element can exist
with differing numbers of neutrons, and hence a different atomic masses (e.g.
12C has 6 protons and 6 neutrons and 13C has 6 protons and 7 neutrons).
CAS number
The Chemical Abstracts Service registry number is a
unique identifier of a particular chemical, designed to prevent confusion
arising from different languages and naming systems (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope).
Melting point
-101.5 oC, -150.7 oF, 171.7 K&
Boiling point
-34.04 oC, -29.27 oF, 239.11 K&
Density (g cm-3)
Atomic number
Relative atomic mass
State at 20°C
Key isotopes
35Cl, 37Cl&
Electron configuration
[Ne] 3s23p5&
CAS number
ChemSpider ID
is a free chemical structure database
Uses and properties terminology
Image Explanation
Murray Robertson is the artist behind the images
which make up Visual Elements. This is where the artist explains his interpretation
of the element and the science behind the picture.
Natural Abundance
Where this element is most commonly found in nature.
Biological Roles
The elements role within the body of humans, animals
and plants. Also functionality in medical advancements both today and years
Appearance
The description of the element in its natural form.
Uses and properties
The symbol shows a gas mask. This is because chlorine is a toxic gas, and has been used as a chemical weapon. Chlorine is yellowy-green in colour, as is the image.
Chlorine is not found uncombined in nature. Halite (sodium chloride or ‘common salt’) is the main mineral that is mined for chlorine. Sodium chloride is a very soluble salt that has been leached into the oceans over the lifetime of the Earth. Several salt beds, or ‘lakes’ are found where ancient seas have evaporated, and these can be mined for chloride. Chlorine is also found in the minerals carnallite (magnesium potassium chloride) and sylvite (potassium chloride). 40 million tonnes of chlorine gas are made each year from the electrolysis of brine (sodium chloride solution). This process also produces useful sodium hydroxide.
Atomic data terminology
Atomic radius/non -bonded (&A)
Based on Van der Waals forces (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope). These values were calculated using a multitude of methods including crystallographic data, gas kinetic collision cross sections, critical densities, liquid state properties,for more details please refer to the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
Electron affinity (kJ mol-1)The
energy released when an additional electron is attached to the neutral atom and
a negative ion is formed (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented
for the most prevalent isotope). *
Electronegativity (Pauling scale)The
degree to which an atom attracts electrons towards itself, expressed on a
relative scale as a function bond dissociation
energies, Ed in eV.
=(eV)-1/2sqrt(Ed(AB)-[Ed(AA)+Ed(BB)]/2),
with &H set as 2.2 (where several isotopes
exist, a value is presented for the most prevalent isotope).
1st Ionisation energy (kJ mol-1)The minimum energy required to remove an electron
from a neutral atom in its ground state (where several isotopes exist, a value
is presented for the most prevalent isotope).
Covalent radius (&A)The
size of the atom within a covalent bond, given for typical oxidation number and
coordination (where several isotopes exist, a value is presented for the most
prevalent isotope). ***
Atomic data
Atomic radius, non-bonded (&A)
Covalent radius (&A)
Electron affinity (kJ mol-1)
Electronegativity (Pauling scale)
Ionisation energies (kJ mol-1)&
Bond enthalpies terminology
BondsThe strengths of several common covalent bonds.
Bond enthalpies
Covalent bond
Enthalpy (kJ mol -1)
Mining/Sourcing Information
Data for this section of the data page has
been provided by the British Geological Survey. To review
the full report please click here or please look at
their website here.
numbers generated
Governance indicators
1 (low) = 0 to 2
2 (medium-low) = 3 to
3 (medium) = 5 to 6
4 (medium-high) = 7
5 (high) = 9
Reserve distribution (%)
1 (low) = 0 to 30 %
2 (medium-low) = 30
3 (medium) = 45 to 60
4 (medium-high) = 60
5 (high) = 75 %
(Where data are unavailable an arbitrary
score of 2 was allocated. For example, Be, As, Na, S, In, Cl,
Ca and Ge are allocated a score of 2 since reserve
base information is unavailable. Reserve base data are also unavailable for
however, reserve data for 2008 are available from the Energy Information
Administration (EIA).)
Production
Concentration
1 (low) = 0 to 30 %
2 (medium-low) = 30
3 (medium) = 45 to 60
4 (medium-high) = 60
5 (high) = 75 %
1 (low) = 100 to 1000 ppm
2 (medium-low) =10 to
3 (medium) = 1 to 10 ppm
4 (medium-high) = 0.1
5 (high) = 0.1 ppm
(Where data are unavailable an arbitrary
score of 2 was allocated. For example, He is allocated a score of 2 since
crustal abundance data is unavailable.)
Explanations
for terminology
Crustal Abundance (ppm)
The abundance of an
element in the Earth's crust in parts-per-million (ppm) i.e. The number of atoms of this element per 1 million
atoms of crust.
country with the largest reserve base.
Reserve distribution (%)
This is a measure of the spread of future
supplies, recording the percentage of a known resource likely to be available
in the intermediate future (reserve base) located in the top three countries.
Production Concentrations
This reports the percentage of an element
produced in the top three countries. The higher the value, the larger risk
there is to supply.
Political stability of top producer
The World Bank produces a global percentile
rank of political stability. The scoring system is given below, and the values
for all three production countries were summed.
Relative Supply Risk Index
The Crustal Abundance, Reserve distribution (%), Production Concentration and Governance Factor scores are summed
and then divided by 2, to provide an overall Relative Supply Risk Index.
Supply risk
Relative supply risk
Crustal abundance (ppm)
Recycling rate (%)
Substitutability
Production concentration (%)
Reserve distribution (%)
Top 3 producers
Top 3 reserve holders
Political stability of top producer
Political stability of top reserve holder
Oxidation states and isotopes
Key for Isotopes
Mode of decay
alpha particle emission
negative beta (electron) emission
positron emission
orbital electron capture
spontaneous fission
double beta emission
double orbital electron capture
Terminology
Common Oxidation states
The oxidation state of an atom is a measure of the degree of oxidation of an atom. It is defined as being the charge that an atom would have if all bonds were ionic. Free atoms have an oxidation state of 0, and the sum of oxidation numbers within a substance must equal the overall charge.
Important Oxidation states
The most common oxidation states of an element in its compounds.
Elements are defined by the number of protons in its centre (nucleus), whilst the number of neutrons present can vary. The variations in the number of neutrons will create elements of different mass which are known as isotopes.
Oxidation states and isotopes
oxidation states
7, 5, 3, 1, -1
Atomic mass
Natural abundance (%)
Mode of decay
Pressure and temperature - advanced terminology
Specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)
Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a kilogram of a substance by 1 K.
Young's modulus (GPa)
Young's modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a
substance, that is, it provides a measure of how difficult it is to extend a
material, with a value given by the ratio of tensile strength to tensile
Shear modulus (GPa)
The shear modulus of a material is a measure of how
difficult it is to deform a material, and is given by the ratio of the shear
stress to the shear strain.
Bulk modulus (GPa)
The bulk modulus is a measure of how difficult to compress a substance. Given by the ratio of the pressure on a body to the fractional decrease in volume.
Vapour Pressure (Pa)
Vapour pressure is the measure of the propensity of a substance to evaporate. It is defined as the equilibrium pressure exerted by the gas produced above a substance in a closed system.
Pressure and temperature data – advanced
Specific heat capacity (J kg-1 K-1)
Young's modulus (GPa)
Shear modulus (GPa)
Bulk modulus (GPa)
1.1 (liquid)
Vapour pressure
Temperature (K)
Pressure (Pa)
Help text not available for this section currently
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) was known to the alchemists. The gaseous element itself was first produced in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele at Uppsala, Sweden, by heating hydrochloric acid with the mineral pyrolusite which is naturally occuring manganese dioxide, MnO2. A dense, greenish-yellow gas was evolved which he recorded as having a choking smell and which dissolved in water to give an acid solution. He noted that it bleached litmus paper, and decolourised leaves and flowers.Humphry Davy investigated it in 1807 and eventually concluded not only that it was a simple substance, but that it was truly an element. He announced this in 1810 and yet it took another ten years for some chemists finally to accept that chlorine really was an element.
Help text not available for this section currently
Transcript :
Chemistry in its element - Chlorine(Promo)&You're listening to Chemistry in its element brought to you by Chemistry World, the magazine of the Royal Society of Chemistry.(End promo)Chris SmithHello. What's got three isotopes, keeps swimming pools clean, damages the ozone layer and is used in more chemical synthesis reactions than you can shake a benzene ring at. Well the man with the answer is Tim Harrison.Tim Harrison&Chlorine is what you might describe as a Jekyll and H it is the friend of the synthetic chemist and has found a use in a number of 'nice' applications such as the disinfecting of drinking water and keeping our swimming pools clean. It also has an unpleasant side, being the first chemical warfare agent and taking some of the blame in the depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.&Elemental chlorine is a pale, yellowy green gas at room temperature. It was the Greek word khl?ros meaning 'yellowish-green' that was used as inspiration by Sir Humphrey Davy when he named this element in the 19th century.&This element was first isolated in 1774 by the Swiss-German chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, by reacting hydrochloric acid with manganese (IV) oxide. But he failed to realise his achievement, mistakenly believing it also contained oxygen. It was Davy in 1810 who finally concluded that Scheele had made elemental chlorine.&Chlorine is in group 17 of periodic table, also called the halogens, and is not found as the element in nature - only as a compound. The most common of these being salt, or sodium chloride, and the potassium compounds sylvite (or potassium chloride) and carnallite (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate). It is also estimated that there are around two thousand organic chlorine compounds.&Chlorine has two stable isotopes chlorine-35 and chlorine-37with Chlorine-35 accounting for roughly 3 out of every 4 naturally occurring chlorine atoms. Chlorine-36 is also known naturally and is a radioactive isotope with a half life of about 30,000 years.&Chlorine has a major role to play in synthetic organic chemistry, taking part in three of the most common reaction mechanisms. In the first of these, the photochemical substitution reaction, chlorine reacts with an alkane by replacing one of the hydrogen atoms attached to a carbon forming a chloroalkane. This radical reaction is initiated by the use of sunlight or ultraviolet light to split diatomic chlorine into two radicals.&Chlorine can also react with alkenes via the electrophilic addition mechanism. This time two chlorine atoms add to a molecule across the electron-rich carbon-carbon double bond. This reaction has to be carried out in the dark to avoid complications with competing free radical substitutions.&A third common mechanism is electrophilic substitution, which occurs when chlorine reacts with a benzene ring by replacing a hydrogen atom forming chlorobenzene and hydrogen chloride. This reaction is most commonly known as the Friedal-Crafts reaction.&Chlorine also has a multitude of industrial uses. Including making bulk materials like bleached paper products, plastics such as PVC and the solvents tetrachloromethane, chloroform and dichloromethane. It is also used to make dyes, textiles, medicines, antiseptics, insecticides and paints.&It's best known uses however are probably in making bleaches such as 'Domestos' and in treating drinking and swimming pool waters to make them safe to use and of course its role as a chemical warfare agent.&The treatment of water with chlorine began in London after a cholera outbreak in 1850 when the physician and pioneering hygienist John Snow identified a well in Soho as the source of the outbreak. Chlorine is still used in most sewage treatment works today.&Snow also used a compound of chlorine - chloroform with the formula CHCl3 - as an anesthetic to aid the childbirth of two of Queen Victoria's children.&The use of chlorine gas as a chemical weapon was pioneered by German chemist Fritz Haber, who is better known for his work with ammonia. It was first used against the Allied soldiers in the battle of Ypres during the first world war. While it was quickly replaced by the more deadly phosgene and mustard gases, chlorine gas has been used as a weapon as recently as 2007 in Iraq during the second gulf war.&Chlorine was also once used to make a series of aerosol solvents and refrigerants called chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs. However their use was stopped once it became apparent that when in the atmosphere these compounds absorb ultraviolet light and cause homolytic bond fission producing a chlorine free radical which in turn reacts with ozone.&This has led to a reduction in the concentration of ozone in the so-called ozone layer, and therefore a reduction in the protection for those of us on the surface of the planet making us more susceptible to skin cancers. So, that's chlorine - a Jeckll and Hyde element with an extremely wide range of applications.&Chris Smith&So slap on your sun screen. Tim Harrison was telling the tale of Element number 17, and that's chlorine. Tim's based at the University of Bristol's ChemLabs. Next week, the stuff that gives itself an x-ray.&Brian Clegg&This grey metallic element gives off beta particles as it decays. These can cause radioactive damage in their own right, but prometheum is probably most dangerous because those beta particles generate X-rays when they hit heavy nuclei, making a sample of promethium bathe its surroundings in a constant low dosage x-ray beam. It was initially used to replace radium in luminous dials. Promethium chloride was mixed with phosphors that glow yellowy-green or blue when radiation hits them. However, as the dangers of the element's radioactive properties became apparent, this too was dropped from the domestic glow-in-the-dark market, only employed now in specialist applications.&Chris Smith&And you can hear what some of those applications are when Brian Clegg looks at the story of promethium in next week's Chemistry in its Element. In the meantime more elements are available from the Chemistry in its Element Podcast, that's on iTunes or on the web at&. I'm Chris Smith, thank you very much for listening and goodbye.&(Promo)&Chemistry in its element is brought to you by the Royal Society of Chemistry and produced by . There's more information and other episodes of Chemistry in its element on our website at .(End promo)&
Help text not available for this section currently
Description :
The Group 7 elements are called the halogens. This experiment involves some reactions of the halogens.
Description :
Studying the physical characteristics of the group 7 non-metals known as the halogens
Description :
How does the reaction compare with other halogens?
Description :
Demonstrating how the more reactive fluorine displaces the less reactive halogens
Description :
The halogens are elements of Group 7 of the Periodic table. This experiment illustrates some of the trends within the compounds of this group. It is ideal for discussing ionic equations, making predi...
Description :
This activity compares the colours of three halogens in aqueous solution and in a non-polar solvent. These halogens also react to a small extent with water, forming acidic solutions with bleaching pro...
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Visual Elements images and videos(C) Murray Robertson 2011.&DataW. M. Haynes, ed.,
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, 95th Edition, Internet Version 2015, accessed December 2014.
Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants, , 16th edition, 1995. Version 1.0 (2005), accessed December 2014.
J. S. Coursey, D. J. Schwab, J.J. Tsai, and R. A. Dragoset, , 2010, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, accessed December 2014.
T. L. Cottrell, The Strengths of Chemical Bonds, Butterworth, London, 1954.&Uses and propertiesJohn Emsley, Nature’s Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements, Oxford University Press, New York, 2nd Edition, 2011.
Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility - Office of Science Education, , accessed December 2014.
, accessed December 2014.&Supply risk dataDerived in part from material provided by the
(C) NERC.&History text(C) John Emsley 2012.&PodcastsProduced by .&
Created by video journalist Brady Haran working with chemists at The University of Nottingham.