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This research doesn't cite any other publications.ArticleJanuary 1990ArticleMarch 2000 · ArticleJanuary 2006 · ArticleJanuary 2009From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Each card has a number on one side, and a patch of color on the other. Which card or cards must be turned over to test the idea that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?
The Wason selection task (or four-card problem) is a
devised by
in 1966. It is one of the most famous tasks in the study of . An example of the puzzle is:
You are shown a set of four cards placed on a table, each of which has a number on one side and a colored patch on the other side. The visible faces of the cards show 3, 8, red and brown. Which card(s) must you turn over in order to test the truth of the proposition that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?
A response that identifies a card that need not be inverted, or that fails to identify a card that needs to be inverted, is incorrect. The original task dealt with numbers (even, odd) and letters (vowels, consonants).
The test is of special interest because people have a hard time solving it in most scenarios but can usually solve it correctly in certain contexts. In particular, researchers have found that the puzzle is readily solved when the imagined context is policing a social rule.
The correct response is to turn over the 8 and the brown card.
The rule was "If the card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red." Only a card with both an even number on one face and something other than red on the other face can invalidate this rule:
If the 3 card is red (or brown), that doesn't violate the rule. The rule makes no claims about odd numbers.
If the 8 card is not red, it violates the rule.
If the red card is odd (or even), that doesn't violate the rule. The red color is not exclusive to even numbers.
If the brown card is even, it violates the rule.
The interpretation of "if" here is that of the
in , so this problem can be solved by choosing the cards using
(all even cards must be checked to ensure they are red) and
(all non-red cards must be checked to ensure they are non-even).
In Wason's study, not even 10% of subjects found the correct solution. This result was replicated in 1993.
Some authors have argued that participants do not read "if... then..." as the material conditional, since the natural language conditional is not the material conditional. (See also the
for more information.) However one interesting feature of the task is how participants react when the classical logic solution is explained:
A psychologist, not very well disposed toward logic, once confessed to me that despite all problems in short-term inferences like the Wason Card Task, there was also the undeniable fact that he had never met an experimental subject who did not understand the logical solution when it was explained to him, and then agreed that it was correct.
This latter comment is also controversial, since it does not explain whether the subjects regarded their previous solution incorrect, or whether they regarded the problem sufficiently vague to have two interpretations.
As of 1983, experimenters had identified that success on the Wason selection task was highly content-dependent, but there was no theoretical explanation for which content elicited mostly correct responses and which ones elicited mostly incorrect responses.
Each card has an age on one side, and a drink on the other. Which card(s) must be turned over to test the idea that if you are drinking alcohol then you must be over 18?
(1992) identified that the selection task tends to produce the "correct" response when presented in a context of . For example, if the rule used is "If you are drinking alcohol then you must be over 18", and the cards have an age on one side and beverage on the other, e.g., "16", "drinking beer", "25", "drinking coke", most people have no difficulty in selecting the correct cards ("16" and "beer"). In a series of experiments in different contexts, subjects demonstrated consistent superior performance when asked to police a social rule involving a benefit that was only legitimately available to someone who had qualified for that benefit. Cosmides and Tooby argued that experimenters have ruled out alternative explanations, such as that people learn the rules of social exchange through practice and find it easier to apply these familiar rules than less-familiar rules.
According to Cosmides and Tooby, this experimental evidence supports the hypothesis that a Wason task proves to be easier if the rule to be tested is one of social exchange (in order to receive benefit X you need to fulfill condition Y) and the subject is asked to police the rule, but is more difficult otherwise. They argued that such a distinction, if empirically borne out, would support the contention of evolutionary psychologists that human
is governed by context-sensitive mechanisms that have evolved, through , to solve specific problems of social interaction, rather than context-free, general-purpose mechanisms. In this case, the module is described as a specialized cheater-detection module.
Davies et al. (1995) have argued that Cosmides and Tooby's argument in favor of context-sensitive, domain-specific reasoning mechanisms as opposed to general-purpose reasoning mechanisms is theoretically incoherent and inferentially unjustified. Von Sydow (2006) has argued that we have to distinguish deontic and descriptive conditionals, but that the logic of testing deontic conditionals is more systematic (cf. Beller, 2001) and depend on one's goals (cf. Sperber & Girotto, 2002). However, in response to
et al. (2011) gave 112 subjects a 70-item computerized version of the contextualized Wason Card Selection Task proposed by Cosmides and Tooby (1992) and found instead that "performance on non-arbitrary, evolutionarily familiar problems is more strongly related to g than performance on arbitrary, evolutionarily novel problems", and writing for , Kaufman concluded instead that "It seems that general intelligence is very much compatible with evolutionary psychology."
Wason, P. C. (1968). "Reasoning about a rule". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 20 (3): 273–281. :.
(1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. New horizons in psychology. 1. Harmondsworth: Penguin.  .
; Shapiro, Diana (1971). "Natural and contrived experience in a reasoning problem". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 23: 63–71. :.
Manktelow, K. I. (1999). . Psychology Press. p. 8.  . The Wason selection task has often been claimed to be the single most investigated experimental paradigm in the psychology of reasoning.
Wason, P. C. (1977). "Self-contradictions". I Wason, P. C. Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  .
Evans, Jonathan St. B. T.; Newstead, Stephen E.; Byrne, Ruth M. J. (1993). . Psychology Press.  .
Oaksford, M.; Chater, N. (1994). "A rational analysis of the selection task as optimal data selection". . 101 (4): 608–631. :.
Stenning, K.; van Lambalgen, M. (2004). "A little logic goes a long way: basing experiment on semantic theory in the cognitive science of conditional reasoning". Cognitive Science. 28 (4): 481–530. :.
von Sydow, M. (2006). . G?ttingen: G?ttingen University Press.
van Benthem, Johan (2008). "Logic and reasoning: do the facts matter?". Studia Logica. 88 (1): 67–84. :.
; Tooby, J. (1992).
(PDF). In Barkow, J.; Cosmides, L.; Tooby, J. . New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 163–228.  .
Davies, Paul S Fetzer, James H.; Foster, Thomas R. (1995). "Logical reasoning and domain specificity". . 10 (1): 1–37. :.
Beller, S. (2001). "A model theory of deontic reasoning about social norms". In Moore, J.D.; Stenning, K. Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Mahwah, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum. pp. 63–68.
Sperber, D.; Girotto, V. (2002). "Use or misuse of the selection task?". Cognition. 85: 277–290. :.
(May–June 2010).
(PDF). . . 65 (4): 279–289. : 2018.
; ; Reis, Deidre L.; Gray, Jeremy R. (May–June 2010).
(PDF). . . 39 (5): 311–322. : 2018.
(July 2, 2011). . . Sussex Publishers 2018.
Barkow, Jerome H.; Cosmides, L Tooby, John (1995).
(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Oxford University Press US. pp. 181–184.  .
Wikimedia Commons has media related to .
– interactive version of Wason Selection Task at PhilosophyExperiments.Com
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A JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) Representation for vCard
draft-bhat-vcarddav-json-00
This document defines a representation of vCard data in JavaScript
Object Notation (JSON).
Status of this Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF).
Note that other groups may also distribute
working documents as Internet-Drafts.
The list of current Internet-
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and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
This Internet-Draft will expire on December 7, 2012.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2012 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors.
All rights reserved.
This document is subject to
and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
() in effect on the date of
publication of this document.
Please review these documents
carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
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Code Components extracted from this document must
include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Discussion Venue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extensibility
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Format Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Schema definition
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Security Considerations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. IANA Considerations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Normative References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Informative References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction
vCard [] is a data format for representing and exchanging
information about individuals and other entities.
It is a text-based
format (as opposed to a binary format).
This document defines a
representation for vCard data in JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), a
lightweight, text-based, language-independent data interchange format
derived from the ECMAScript Programming Language Standard (see
As with the XML representation of vCard defined in
[], the data structure is exactly the same as for plain vCard,
enabling a 1-to-1 mapping between the plain vCard format and the JSON
representation (or the XML representation).
The JSON formatting
might be preferred in some contexts where JSON facilities are readily
available and can be reused instead of writing a standalone vCard
Discussion Venue
The preferred discussion venue for this document is the
vcarddav@ietf.org mailing list, for which subscription information
and archives can be found at
Terminology
The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
"SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
"OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
To ease comparison with both plain vCard and the XML representation,
the following example is a JSON representation of the same vCard (for
Simon Perreault) that is also shown in [] and [].
"version":"4.0",
"Simon Perreault",
"surname": "Simon",
"given": "Perreault",
"suffix": [ "ing. jr", "M.Sc."]
"bday": { "date": "--0203" },
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"anniversary": { "date-time": "0-0500" },
"gender": { "sex" : "M" },
"lang": [ {
"pref": 1,
"language-tag": "fr",
"pref": 2,
"language-tag": "en",
"type": "work",
"text": "Viagenie"
"type": "work",
"label": "Simon Perreault
2875 boul. Laurier, suite D2-630
Quebec, QC, Canada G1V 2M2",
"street": "2875 boul. Laurier, suite D2-630",
"locality": "Quebec",
"region": "QC",
"code": "G1V 2M2",
"country": "CA"
"tel": [ {
["work", "voice"],
"uri": "tel:+1-418-656-9254;ext=102"
"type": ["work", "text", "voice", "cell", "video"],
"uri": "tel:+1-418-262-6501"
"email": {
"type": "work",
"text": "simon.perreault@viagenie.ca"
"type": "work",
"uri": "geo:46..28955"
"type": "work",
"tz": "America/Montreal",
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"type": "home",
Figure 1: JSON representation of
Design Considerations
The general idea is to map vCard parameters, properties and value
types to JSON property/value pairs.
For example, the "FN" property
is mapped to the fn property.
Value contains a text string that
corresponds to the vCard property's value. vCard parameters are also
mapped to JSON objects which are contained in the value object.
example, the "TYPE" parameter applied to the "TEL" property would
look like the following in JSON.
"type": [ "voice", "video" ],
"uri": "tel:+1-555-555-555"
Figure 2: Mapping of a vCard parameter
Parameters taking a list of values and properties with cardinality of
more than one are converted to a JSON array object.
Properties
having structured values (e.g., the "N" property) are expressed by
nested JSON object trees.
Properties within that tree ("surname",
"given", etc.) are mapped as simple name/value pairs.
These pairs
should follow the schema defined by the XML mapping of vCard(Appendix
A in []) Line folding is a non-issue in JSON.
Therefore, the
mapping from vCard to JSON is done after the unfolding procedure is
carried out.
Conversely, the mapping from JSON to vCard is done
before the folding procedure is carried out.
The group construct
() is represented with the JSON object of the
same name.
For example:
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vCard in JSON
"version" : "4.0"
"contact": {
"fn": "...",
"email": "..."
"media" : {
"photo": "..."
"categories": "..."
Figure 3: Mapping of lists and structured values
... is equivalent to:
BEGIN:VCARD
VERSION:4.0
contact.FN=...
contact.EMAIL=...
media.PHOTO=...
CATEGORIES=...
Figure 4: Plain vCard equivalent
The VALUE parameter from the plain VCARD format is used as the
property name in the JSON format.
If there is no VALUE parameter
specified, it is treated as equivalent to VALUE=text.
For example:
"email": {
"type": "work",
"text": "simon.perreault@viagenie.ca"
"type": "work",
"uri": "geo:46..28955"
"bday": { "date": "--0203" },
Figure 5: Mapping of VALUE parameter
... is equivalent to:
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BEGIN:VCARD
VERSION:4.0
EMAIL;VALUE=type=work:simon.perreault@viagenie.ca
GEO;VALUE=type=work:geo:46..28955
BDATE;VALUE=date:--0203
Figure 6: Plain vCard equivalent
In the plain vCard format, the "VERSION" property was mandatory and
played a role in extensibility.
In XML, this property was dropped in
favor of the XML namespace mechanism.
In the JSON mapping, we keep
the "version" property, which plays a similar role as in the plain
vCard format.
Finally, there is no reason to include a top-level name of "vcard" or
"vcards", since the data type can be determined from the media type
of the data file.
Extensibility
The plain vCard format is extensible.
New properties, parameters,
data types and values (collectively known as vCard elements, not to
be confused with XML elements) can be registered with IANA (see
It is expected that these vCard extensions
will also specify extensions to the JSON format described in this
New JSON vCard property and parameter element names MUST
be lower-case.
This is necessary to ensure that round-tripping
between JSON and plain-text vCard works correctly.
Unregistered
extensions (i.e., those starting with "X-" and "VND-...-") are
expressed in JSON by using properties starting with "x-" and
"vnd-...-".
for the implications when converting
between plain-text vCard and JSON.
For example:
"x-my-prop": {
"text": "value goes here"
Figure 7: An example of extensibility
A vCard JSON parser MUST ignore JSON parameters and properties for
which it doesn't recognize the name.
In the XML representation of vCard [], extensibility is
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vCard in JSON
handled in part by using XML namespaces [] for properties
and parameters that have no equivalent in plain-text vCard.
extensions that might appear in both the JSON representation and the
XML representation, it is RECOMMENDED to represent the JSON parameter
or property name in "Clark Notation" [] by preceding the name
itself with the Uniform Resource Identifier [] of the XML
namespace, enclosed in curly brackets ('{' and '}'); thus the
"expanded name" will be of the form "{URI}name".
For extensions that
will appear in the JSON representation but not the XML
representation, a mere (non-expanded) name can be used, or the name
can be an expanded name formed in another manner (e.g., using the
"reverse domain name" convention such as "com.example.vcard.foo").
The JSON format does not validate the cardinality of properties.
This is a limitation of the JSON format specification.
Cardinalities
of the plain vCard format [] MUST still be respected.
Format Conversions
Schema definition
Security Considerations
All the security considerations applicable to plain vCard []
are also applicable to the JSON representation of vCard.
As explained in [], JSON is a subset of JavaScript, but it is
a safe subset that excludes assignment and invocation.
A JSON text
can be safely passed into JavaScript's eval() function (which
compiles and executes a string) if all the characters not enclosed in
strings are in the set of characters that form JSON tokens.
IANA Considerations
To: ietf-types@iana.org
Subject: Registration of media type application/vcard+json
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vCard in JSON
Type name: application
Subtype name: vcard+json
Required parameters: (none)
Optional parameters: (none)
Encoding considerations:
8bit if UTF-8; binary if UTF-16 or UTF-32;
Security considerations:
All of the security considerations
specified in
Interoperability considerations: (none)
Specification:
Applications that use this media type:
vCard processors.
Additional information:
Magic number(s):
File extension(s):
Macintosh file type code(s):
Person and email address to contact for further information:
discussion mailing list, &vcarddav@ietf.org&
Intended usage:
Restrictions on usage:
Peter Saint-Andre, &&
Change controller:
Peter Saint-Andre, &&
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Joe Hildebrand for his feedback.
Some text in this document was borrowed from [].
References
Normative References
Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", , , March 1997.
Crockford, D., "The application/json Media Type for
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)", , July 2006.
Perreault, S., "vCard Format Specification", ,
August 2011.
Informative References
Clark, J., "Clark Notation", February 1999,
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Berners-Lee, T., Fielding, R., and L. Masinter, "Uniform
Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax", STD 66,
, January 2005.
Perreault, S., "xCard: vCard XML Representation",
, August 2011.
Thompson, H., Hollander, D., Layman, A., Bray, T., and R.
Tobin, "Namespaces in XML 1.0 (Third Edition)", World Wide
Web Consortium Recommendation REC-xml-names-,
December 2009,
Authors' Addresses
Raghurama Bhat
Cisco Systems, Inc.
900 McCarthy Blvd.
Milpitas, CA
Phone: +1-408-902-2123
Peter Saint-Andre
Cisco Systems, Inc.
1899 Wynkoop Street, Suite 600
Denver, CO
Phone: +1-303-308-3282
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