急切想找一篇关于惩罚性赔偿制度的英语文章，要求翻译成汉字大概有5000左右，请帮帮忙_百度知道
急切想找一篇关于惩罚性赔偿制度的英语文章，要求翻译成汉字大概有5000左右，请帮帮忙
最好是这篇文章中的 Punitive Damag忒演侈可侬玖畴雪川磨es:Legal Hot Zones论文答辩需要
Ronald A. Brand:
Punitive Damages and The Recognition of Judgments
Netherland International Law Review
1996Rebecca Dresser,“Personal Identity and Punishment”, 70B. U. L. Rev.395, 419 (1990).David F. Partlett,“Punitive Damages: Legal Hot Zone馑秆盾貉墉股堕瘫乏凯s”, 56La. L. Rev.781, 797 (1996).David R. Levy ,Note:
&Punitive Damage in Light of TXO Productions Corp. v.Alliance Resources Corp.& 39St. Louis V.L.J.409,412 n.20(1994).能帮我找到其中一篇文章吗论文答辩急需谢谢好心人了
提问者采纳
如果你能准确的说出 文章名字，最好有 citation，source, author，哪个law review，或journal， 我可能帮你在westlaw 或 lexis上找到。
还有，你不如去找找经济方面的书，可能多少会有些启发。简介1：Punitive damages are often awarded in tortious interference cases.[FN2] But only one case is known in which punitive damages were awarded based on a finding of nominal, instead of actual, damages.[FN3]Some cases require only intentional conduct as the basis for an award of punitive damages, although intentional conduct is required in any case as an element of the tort.[FN4] In Ross v. Holton,[FN5] for example, the court said:In the area of intentional torts a submissible punitive damages question is made for the jury once the plaintiff has presented sufficient evidence of legal malice—the intentional doing of a wrongful act without just cause or excuse …. [T]his is an element of intentional interference with contract, and as we noted earlier, Ross presented sufficient evidence from which a jury could reasonably find that Maisel acted with legal malice. Since Ross presented sufficient evidence to submit the punitive damages question to the jury, the trial court erred when it directed a verdict against him.Once a submissible tortious interference case is made the amount of punitive damages to be awarded is wholly within the discretion of the jury, and a court cannot interfere with the jury's assessment of punitive damages unless there is an abuse of discretion, or the size of the award is indicative of passion, prejudice or bias ….But some jurisdictions have established a more elevated threshold:[FN6] e.g., a requirement of independently tortious conduct,[FN7] actual malice,[FN8] a bad motive,[FN9] reckless disregard for the rights of others,[FN10] or at least conduct above and beyond the basic behavior which is required to constitute the tort of interference.[FN11]In many cases the amount of the punitive damage award has greatly exceeded the actual damages.[FN12] Some courts have even allowed an award of punitive damages where 匈黑膏夹薇蝗疙伟躬连the actual damages were nominal,[FN13] although others have refused to do so.[FN14]But there are limits.[FN15] As one court has said:A punitive damages award is considered excessive when the amount of damages is out of proportion to the degree of malice or wantonness of the defendant's conduct in relation to the defendant's financial worth …. The award of $2 million is.4% of USI's net worth of $520 million …. Thus, the district court properly allowed Gregg an amount of punitive damages commensurate with the degree of USI's offensive conduct and in proportion to its financial worth.[FN16]There are also federal constitutional limits on punitive damages, and an award of such damages in a tortious interference case has been reversed altogether on such grounds.[FN16.50]In those cases where it is held that tortious interference is a violation of a state unfair or deceptive practices statute, the plaintiff may be entitled to statutory treble damages and/or an award of attorney fees.[FN17]简介2Exemplary or punitive damages, if permissible under the rule prevailing in the particular jurisdiction,[FN1] may, as a penalty[FN2] and as a deterrent to others inclined to commit similar acts,[FN3] be awarded, in the discretion of the jury,[FN4] in an action for defamation.[FN5] Such damages may be awarded whether the defamation is actionable per se or per quod.[FN6] Punitive damages in a defamation case are justified to punish a person for outrageous conduct which is malicious, wanton, reckless, or in willful disregard for another's rights.[FN7]The United States Supreme Court has defined the limitations on the awarding of punitive damages, holding that, while the First Amendment guaranty of free speech and press allows a state to impose, in defamation suits brought by private individuals, liability on the publisher or broadcaster of defamatory falsehoods on a less-demanding showing than in such suits brought by a public person, the states may not permit recovery, in a case involving a matter of public concern,[FN8] of presumed or punitive damages when liability is not based on knowledge of falsity or on reckless disregard of the truth.[FN9]In some jurisdictions, statutes restrict recoveries to actual damages in the event of a prompt and full retraction.[FN10] For example, no punitive damages would be awarded where a newspaper printed a full and fair retraction of an erroneous report concerning a debt owed by the plaintiff, and compensatory damages were awarded for the negligence of the reporter.[FN11] On the other hand, a refusal to retract after a proper demand therefor is evidence of malice, which, along with other proof, may be sufficient to support an award of punitive damages.[FN12] Punitive damages may, in a proper case, be awarded to a corporate plaintiff.[FN13]Some jurisdictions do not allow the recovery of punitive damages in defamation actions.[FN14]
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出门在外也不愁帮忙翻译一篇雅思阅读文章吧~~本人翻译能力有限啊~请不要使用翻译_翻译吧_百度贴吧
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Obtaining Linguistic DataMany procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one's mother tongue carried out in an armchair at home. In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data - an informant. Informants are(ideally) native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language(e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage). Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to linguistics. But a linguist's personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point recourse is needed to more objective methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The latter procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages, or child speech. Many&& factors must be considered when selecting informants - whether one is working with single speakers(a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of identity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting(e.g. the level of formality) are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants(e.g. their fluency and consistency). For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use. Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguist's claims about the language to be checked, and provides a way of making those claims more accurate('difficult' pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recording procedures have thus been devised to minimise the 'observer's paradox'(how to observe the way people behave when they are not bening observed). Some recordings are made without the speaker being aware of the fact - a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be anticipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style(e.g. asking older informants about how times have changed in their locality). An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguist's problems, however. Speech is often&& unclear and ambiguous. Where possible , therefore, the recording has to be supplemented by the observer's written comments on the non-verbal behaviour of the participants, and about the context in general. A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations(the camera connot be everywhere), and transcriptions always benefit from any additional commentary provided by an observer.
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Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviour. With a bilingual informant, or through use of an interpreter, it is possible to use translation techniques('How do you say table in your language?'). A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview worksheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame(e.g I__see a car), or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction('Is it possible to say I no can see?'). A representative sample of language, compiled for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts fro others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feature. The size of the porpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a l by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, through either introspection or experimentation.
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为兴趣而生，贴吧更懂你。或请帮忙用日语翻译一篇北京后海的文章_百度知道
请帮忙用日语翻译一篇北京后海的文章
后海是个适合怀旧的地方。什刹海一带，什刹海边的柳荫街曾住过十大元帅中的八位、船餐，有恭亲王府，简单的古旧家具，依然能咀嚼那似乎技泉羔度薏道贱乱早已远去的皇家遗韵，明天要用，给宁静的后海增添了小资的情调，距天安门仅有四、宋庆龄故居，是历经千年的什刹海的一部分，还有“孔乙己”、中海，与著名的北海一水相连，让食与乐调和，难怪都市人都蜂拥而至。
后海，一阵幽幽的二胡或琵琶声从湖上的游船里飘荡过来，与景山，周边的王府和名人故居更为它铺陈着京味和历史的无穷韵味，具有北京传统建筑的典型特征，南，是一片有水而能观山，光线暧昧。两岸依依垂柳掩映着王府和历代名人故居，素有“九庵一庙”之称。
说是“海”，许多建筑年代久远、绿色植物，十分感谢，或许空间可以避免过份的喧闹、西海三块水面的什刹海，非常着急，垂柳拂岸的闲散之地！
后海是指前海。月亮高悬，其实是一个巨大的人工湖。人们来这里只为了。这里寺庙林立，这也是人们喜欢来后海泡吧的原因，依然能看见老北京四合院建筑群的缩影、白米斜街。西海岸边的鱼生、醇亲王府、个性饰物。如金丝套地区的大小金丝胡同！请专业人士帮忙。后海一带的酒吧都不大。后海地处北京市中心请把下面的一篇介绍后海的文章用日语翻译、烟袋斜街等，岸上的民居和居民，银锭桥边有百年老店“烤肉季”和“爆肚张”。后海的街巷结构最早形成于元代、南海前三海区别。如今，最好今天晚上翻完。为了与北海、游玩场所，是旧时皇家独享的一泓清池、后海， 被称作后三海、五站地，有40余处文物保护单位，这里依然能够听到秋日里清脆的虫鸣、故宫遥遥相对、北官方胡同和鸦儿胡同，每次来后海都引发人怀旧的情结。
后海是老北京久负盛名的消夏、茶道、郭沫若故居
提问者采纳
烟袋斜街など、 称された后に3海、40数か所の文化财保护の部门があります、シダレヤナギは岸のぶらぶらしている地にふいて、これも人々が后海に来て原因を浸すことが好きなのです。言うのは“海”で、景山、后海。后海の一帯のバーはすべて大きくなくて、1千年の什刹海の一部をしばしば経験するので。人々はここに来てただだけ、依然としてとっくに远く去るような皇室を咀嚼してそれでは韵を失うことができます、恭しく王府。両岸は名残惜しくシダレヤナギは王府と歴代の有名人の旧居を引き立たせ合って、もしかすると空间は騒がしさを免れたことがあることができて、あります“孔の乙自分”、“9庵の1庙”の称がもとからあります、光线はあいまいで。今のところ、ここは依然として秋の中に軽快な虫が鸣くことを耳にすることができて。月の高悬、调和を食べて笑うことを譲って。西海の岸辺の鱼は、游ぶ场所です、依然として老けこむ北京四合院(旧式の家)の建筑群の缩図を见ることができて。ここの寺院は林立して、西海の3つの水面の什刹海です、岸の上の民家と住民、什刹海辺の柳荫の街かつ鸵谒蒂舅郦矫跪收て十大元帅に居住したことがある中の8位。什刹海の一帯。后海は北京市の中心に位置して。金の糸のようです地区の大きさの金の糸の路地をかぶせて、アルコールにキスして王府后海は前海、船の食事を生んで、5立つことだけあって、北の政府の路地と鸦児胡同、中海、宋庆齢の旧居。北海、北京の伝统の建物の典型的な特徴を持ちます、昔の皇室のただ享受する1すじの清池です、茶道、実は1つの巨大な人工湖で、简単な古くさい家具、故宫とはるかに相対的です、个性の装身(装饰)具。后海、郭沫若の旧居にキスすることがいて、有名な北海の1水と相连なって、毎回后海に来てすべて人の昔を懐かしむコンプレックスを诱発します、南シナ海と前で3海域。后海は古い北京のかねてから盛名をうたわれている避暑、南、道理で都市人はすべてどっとやって来ます、天安门まで4、马蹄银の桥の辺は百年の老舗の“あぶり肉の季”と“胃袋の张に破裂します”があって、周辺の王府と有名人の旧居はいっそうそれは京の味と歴史の尽きることがない趣を详しく说明しています、白米の斜街、1面水が山を见ることができるので。后海の街の坑道の构造は1番早く元代に形成して、ひとしきりの弱々しい二胡あるいは琵琶の音は湖上の游覧船の中から漂ってきて、静かな后海に小资产阶级の情绪を加えました、绿色植物、たくさんの建物は年代はかなり古くて。后海は个が昔を懐かしむ地方に适するので
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你的日语真好！非常感谢！
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我在学日语，但这个太难了！抱歉!
后海は前海、后海、西海の3つの水面の什刹海です。北海、中海、南シナ海と前で3海域、 称された后に3海。后海、1千年の什刹海の一部をしばしば経験するので、1面水が山を见ることができるので、シダレヤナギは岸のぶらぶらしている地にふいて、岸の上の民家と住民、周辺の王府と有名人の旧居はいっそうそれは京の味と歴史の尽きることがない趣を详しく说明しています。人々はここに来てただだけ、ここは依然として秋の中に軽快な虫が鸣くことを耳にすることができて、依然として老けこむ北京四合院(旧式の家)の建筑群の缩図を见ることができて、依然としてとっくに远く去るような皇室を咀嚼してそれでは韵を失うことができます。言うのは“海”で、実は1つの巨大な人工湖で、昔の皇室のただ享受する1すじの清池です。后海は北京市の中心に位置して、天安门まで4、5立つことだけあって、有名な北海の1水と相连なって、景山、故宫とはるかに相対的です。后海の街の坑道の构造は1番早く元代に形成して、たくさんの建物は年代はかなり古くて、北京の伝统の建物の典型的な特徴を持ちます。金の糸のようです地区の大きさの金の糸の路地をかぶせて、南、北の政府の路地と鸦児胡同、白米の斜街、烟袋斜街など。什刹海の一帯、40数か所の文化财保护の部门があります。両岸は名残惜しくシダレヤナギは王府と歴代の有名人の旧居を引き立たせ合って、恭しく王府、アルコールにキスして王府、宋庆齢の旧居、郭沫若の旧居にキスすることがいて、什刹海辺の柳荫の街かつて十大元帅に居住したことがある中の8位。ここの寺院は林立して、“9庵の1庙”の称がもとからあります。后海は古い北京のかねてから盛名をうたわれている避暑、游ぶ场所です。今のところ、马蹄银の桥の辺は百年の老舗の“あぶり肉の季”と“胃袋の张に破裂します”があって、あります“孔の乙自分”。西海の岸辺の鱼は、茶道、船の食事を生んで、调和を食べて笑うことを譲って、道理で都市人はすべてどっとやって来ます。后海の一帯のバーはすべて大きくなくて、简単な古くさい家具、绿色植物、个性の装身(装饰)具、もしかすると空间は騒がしさを免れたことがあることができて、これも人々が后海に来て原因を浸すことが好きなのです。月の高悬、光线はあいまいで、ひとしきりの弱々しい二胡あるいは琵琶の音は湖上の游覧船の中から漂ってきて、静かな后海に小资产阶级の情绪を加えました。后海は个が昔を懐かしむ地方に适するので、毎回后海に来てすべて人の昔を懐かしむコンプレックスを诱発します。赞同5| 评论(1)
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出门在外也不愁请帮忙翻译一篇文章_百度知道
请帮忙翻译一篇文章
Stock identification is the process of allocating identifiers to ensure that stock items can be 3)Class C---minimum control with free issue, confu 2) Degree of protection against stockouts. However, of which there are many. 1) Class A---close control and checked once a monthStock control is the determination and regulation of which items are kept in stock and what quantities of each are stocked without stock excess or stock deficiencies. There is a wide spectrum of users of stock. The stock control policy for the categories 2) Category B items----20% of volume accounts for 20% of value. Holding a high level of stock is a simple policy to manage and reduces the risk of stockouts. H 4) Holding costs. This principle is often referred to as the 80&#47, holding only low levels of stock is a more difficult policy to manage: 1) Category A items----10% of volume accounts for 70% of value. This is not only because it relies on timely deliveries by suppliers, it increases the stockholding costs. This is frequently the case with stockholdings, frequency. A BC groups stock items into high-value items. For example.2, B or C, which in turn increases the administration time and costs associated with stock. The aim is to achieve a balance between the two extremes of holding too much 2) Class B---medium control and checked every three months: a manufacturer may hold thousands of stock lines minimum stock levels for the different categories can be set, meaning that in such cases 80% of the items in stock typically make up only 20% of the total stock value. The range and depth of stockholdings is determined by an assessment of the following factors, by reducing the need for frequent orders it also reduces the administrative costs of purchasing stocks, time, which a few stock lines are highly valuable.
On the other hand. Having categorized items as A, predictability), so there needs to be a common method of describing ite 3) Category C items----70% of volume accounts for 10% of value, which tend to be few in number, medium-value items and low-value items, which the remaining 20% of (high-value) items account for 80% of t 3) P 5) Lead-time, but also because it increases the number of orders that must be placed with suppliers、Stock Classification The economist Vilfredo Pareto studied situations in which most of the value of a population of items was concentrated in few individual membe20 rule.1、Stock Identification Stock consists of many different types of individual items, it reduces t刍骨灌谎弑荷靳芹he stockholding costs: 1) The nature of demand (quantity, the policy and maximum&#47, scope. Moreover
藉由减少它也减少购买存货的管理费用的对时常发生的次序需要; 3) 购买费用。 然而, 其中有多数: 一个制造业者可能用只有极小的价值，它增加 stockholding 费用存货的控制是决心和哪些项目在存货和什么每个的量没有存货的过度或存货的缺乏被进货中被保持的规则;(量,依次增加与存货有关的行政时间和费用一起下的次序的数字,存货分类经济学者 Vilfredo Pareto 学习了情形在哪一个项目的人口的大部份价值在人口的少数个别成员中被集中。 然而。 对于种类的存货控制政策可能是依下列各项: 1) 种类一项目----10% 体积解释 70% 价值、范围;20 规则。 目标将达成握住太多的在这二种极端之间的平衡或太少存货。 存货确认是确定存货项目可能是独特地识别的分派标识符的程序; 3) 种类 C 计算----70% 体崃觅弟幌郗呵辊琴积解释 10% 价值, 剩余 20%(高价值) 项目解释 80% 的完全存货的价值; 4) 把持花费。 范围和 stockholdings 的深度被下列因素的一个评估决定、媒体-价值的项目和低价值项目中是少数的: 1) 要求的性质。 一个西元前团体存货的项目进入高价值项目之内、时间。有存货的宽范围使用者、 B 或 C 。 举例来说;最小量存货的水平项目能被设定、频率、混乱和副本。 这是不只有因为它仰赖供应者的及时递送; 5) 领引-计时。 1，它减少 stockholding 费用，因此，那里需要是描述项目的通常方法避免错误。 握住高度存货是处理而且减少缺货的危险的一个简单的政策; 2) 班级 B---媒体控制而且每个三个月检查,存货确认存货有个别项目的许多不同类型，维持唯一的低度存货是处理的一个比较困难的政策。 2, 容易在数字, 意谓在存货的如此情形 80% 的项目中典型地组成只有 20% 的完全存货的价值, 但是也因为它增加一定与供应者。 这时常用 stockholdings 是情形。 这一项原则被时常称为 80&#47。 有为不同的种类分类作为 A , 可预测性) 2) 反对缺货的保护的程度。 另一方面; 2) 种类 B 计算----20% 体积解释 20% 价值; 3)班级 C---最小量以自由地议题控制、政策和最大值&#47。 1) 分类一---结束控制而且每月一次检查。 而且,高度地有价值举行数以千计的存货的线
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